Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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Cauda equina

The cauda equina is the collective term given to nerve roots distal to the conus medullaris, which occupy the lumbar cistern. Its name comes from the Latin for "horse's tail". The cauda equina is contained within the thecal sac and suspended in CSF. The lower sacral (S2-S5) and coccygeal root...

Pulmonary mucormycosis

Pulmonary mucormycosis is an opportunistic pulmonary fungal infection from a fungus belonging to the order Mucorales. Pulmonary mucormycosis has to be distinguished from the related counterpart invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) as modern first-line antifungals typically used for aspergillo...

HRCT chest - expiration (protocol)

Expiratory high-resolution CT (HRCT) imaging corresponds to an additional CT acquisition performed as part of the HRCT chest protocol. It represents a scan performed with the patient on supine and images obtained at the end-expiration. It is a useful method for detecting small airways obstruct...

Lines and tubes: neonatal (chest radiograph)

Neonatal lines and tubes are widely used in the NICU (neonatal intensive care unit) in the management of critically ill neonates. Examples include: nasogastric (NG) tube endotracheal (ET) tube central venous line umbilical artery catheter umbilical vein catheter Nasogastric tube The NG tu...

Diffuse pulmonary lymphangiomatosis

Diffuse pulmonary lymphangiomatosis (DPL) is a rare condition characterized by diffuse proliferation of anastomosing lymphatic channels (lymphangiomas). Epidemiology There is no recognized gender predilection. It typically manifests in children and young adults. Radiographic features CT ches...

Neonatal pneumonia

Neonatal pneumonia refers to inflammatory changes of the respiratory system caused by neonatal infection. Epidemiology It is one of the leading causes of significant morbidity and mortality in developing countries. Neonatal pneumonia accounts for 10% of global child mortality. At the time of w...

Radiation-associated lens opacities

Radiation-associated lens opacities, also known as radiation-induced cataracts, are caused by excessive exposure of the lenses of the eyes to ionizing radiation. Pathology The lens of the eye is one of the most radiosensitive tissues in the body. Exposure to ionizing radiation can cause catara...

Olecranon foramen

An olecranon foramen, also known as septal aperture or supratrochlear foramen, is a common normal anatomical variant of the distal humerus. Epidemiology There is a wide variation of incidence, occurring between 5% to 50% of the population depending on ethnicity, being more common in individua...

Cerebral hypoventilation syndrome

Cerebral hypoventilation syndrome refers to a congenital condition characterized by hypoventilation during sleep with no other abnormalities of the cardiorespiratory system. There is a decrease in the depth of breathing. It is also known as central sleep apnea, congenital central hypoventilatio...

Infiltrating syringomatous adenoma of the nipple

Infiltrating syringomatous adenoma of the nipple is a relatively rare, benign dermal neoplasm of the areola and nipple. Clinical presentation Syringomatous adenomas of the nipple usually present as unilateral 1 to 3 cm firm lesion in the subareolar or nipple region of the breast. Tenderness, i...

Birth defects linked to antithyroid drug treatment in pregnancy

Birth defects linked to antithyroid drug treatment in pregnancy have for a long time been known to exist. A recent Danish register-based cohort study has assessed the degree of association of antithyroid drugs (ATD), such as methimazole (MMI) / carbimazole (CMZ) and propylthiouracil (PTU), and t...

Komi classification of bile duct cysts

Komi classification of bile duct cysts divides anomalous union of the pancreatico-bile ducts (AUPBD) into three types based on the angle of union of the ducts 1. Classification type I: union of the ducts at a right angle to each other type Ia: without dilatation or type Ib: with dilatation ...

Adrenal collision tumor

An adrenal collision tumor or collision tumor of the adrenal gland is an uncommon condition where two histologically distinct tumors abut each other or are in close proximity in the same adrenal gland. Pathology Collision tumors have been reported in nearly every organ, for example, collision ...

Nipple adenoma

Nipple adenoma is a rare, benign breast lesion which often mimics a malignancy Clinical presentation Patient presents with bloody discharge from an ulcerated and painful nipple in one breast. There is itching associated with this lesion. Symptoms may show variation with the menstrual cycle. T...

April Fools'

The Radiopaedia editors have a recurring commitment to prank the collective radiology community each year on April 1, an informal holiday known as April Fools' day. Sometimes months in the planning and creation, the pseudo-pathologies depicted on imaging are an exciting annual project the editor...

Deep spaces of the head and neck

The deep spaces of the head and neck refer to compartments delimited by the deep cervical fascia. While these concepts overlap with traditional anatomical descriptions, their existence highlights the importance of fascia in confining various pathologies. A knowledge of these spaces not only all...

Sclerosing angiomatoid nodular transformation of the spleen

Sclerosing angiomatoid nodular transformation (SANT) of the spleen is a recently recognized, rare, non-neoplastic vascular splenic lesion of uncertain etiology. Terminology The term SANT first appeared in the literature in a 2004 article by Martel et al. which examined a series of 25 cases 3....

Breast core biopsy

The percutaneous breast biopsy is one of the current choices for focal histopathological assessment of breast lesions. In contrast to fine needle aspiration, during a core needle biopsy, a hollow needle is used to withdraw small cores of tissue from the area of interest in the breast. This pro...

Ultrasound guided breast biopsy

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous breast biopsy is a widely used technique for an accurate histopathological assessment of suspected breast pathology. It is a fast, safe and economical procedure. Indications Ultrasound guidance is limited to lesions visible on ultrasound study. The biopsy is gene...

Flowing ossifications

Flowing ossifications are seen in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). They are defined as heterotopic ossifications involving the anterior longitudinal ligament, paraspinal connective tissues and annulus fibrosus of at least four contiguous vertebral bodies and are originally descri...

Parasyndesmophytes

Parasyndesmophytes or non-marginal bulky syndesmophytes or floating syndesmophytes are, paravertebral dystrophic soft tissue calcifications or heterotopic ossifications. Etiology They are known to be seen in 4: psoriatic arthritis reactive arthritis Radiographic features Initially parasyn...

Adult elbow radiograph (an approach)

Systematic review Whenever you look at an adult elbow x-ray, review: alignment fat pads for effusion bony cortex Alignment Check the anterior humeral line: drawn down the anterior surface of the humerus should intersect the middle 1/3 of the capitellum if it does not, think: distal hume...

Neuroendocrine tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) (historically called APUDomas) represent a wide spectrum of disease. They consist of a large heterogeneous group of malignancies that are derived from embryonic neural crest tissue found in various organ such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adren...

Occam's razor

Occam's razor (also known as lex parsimoniae), an often cited principle of parsimony, economy, or succinctness used in problem-solving. It has also been expressed as the KISS principle or "Keep it simple stupid!". It states that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions sh...

Hemoptysis

Hemoptysis (plural: hemoptyses) refers to coughing up of blood. Generally, it appears bright red in color as opposed to blood from the gastrointestinal tract which appears dark red. It is considered an alarming sign of a serious underlying etiology. Terminology A variety of clinical classifica...

Interface sign (HRCT chest)

The interface sign is a feature seen on HRCT chest imaging and refers to the presence of irregular interfaces at the margins of pulmonary parenchymal structures or the pleural surface of the lung. It suggests interstitial thickening.

Air space nodule

An air space nodule is a small (few millimeters to 1 cm), ill-defined, nodular opacity that is often centrilobular in location and is non-specific, seen in many conditions. Commonly it represents a focal area of consolidation or peribronchiolar inflammation, and can indicate endobronchial spread...

Elbow radiograph (summary approach)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Elbow radiographs are common plain films that are obtained frequently in the emergency department. Summary approach alignment anterior humeral line drawn down the anterior surface of the humerus should intersect the mi...

Egg-on-a-string sign (heart)

Egg-on-a-string sign, also referred to as egg on its side, refers to the cardiomediastinal silhouette seen in transposition of the great arteries (TGA). The heart appears globular due to an abnormal convexity of the right atrial border and left atrial enlargement and therefore appears like an ...

Posterior cranial fossa

The posterior cranial fossa is the most posterior aspect of the skull base housing the brainstem and cerebellum. Gross anatomy The following structures are present from anterior to posterior: internal acoustic meatus foramen magnum groove for superior petrosal sinus jugular foramen hypogl...

Fetal circulation

Fetal circulation differs from the adult circulation due to the presence of certain vessels and shunts. These shunts close after birth, and most of the fetal vessels are visible as remnants in the adult circulation. The function of these shunts is to direct oxygen-rich venous blood to the syst...

Target sign (peripheral nerve sheath tumor)

The target sign of peripheral nerve sheath tumor (PNST) is a lesional pattern of T2 signal on MRI consisting of a central area of low intensity surrounded by a T2 hyperintense rim. It is most commonly associated with localized neurofibroma, having been shown to correspond histopathologically wit...

Bilateral adrenal gland hyperenhancement

Bilateral adrenal gland hyperenhancement or intense adrenal enhancement may be a feature of hypotension and forms part of the CT hypoperfusion complex. Adrenal gland hyperenhancement has been described in pediatric and small adult series or individual cases of hemorrhagic shock, pancreatitis, s...

Pubic symphysis

The pubic symphysis (or symphysis pubis) is a midline secondary amphiarthrodial cartilaginous joint of the bony pelvis, uniting both pubic bodies. Gross anatomy Articulations The pubic symphysis is a secondary cartilaginous joint, which means there is a wedge-shaped fibrocartilaginous interpu...

Posterior external jugular vein

The posterior external jugular vein is a tributary of the external jugular vein. Gross anatomy Origin and course Forms from the confluence of several superficial veins in the posterosuperior neck and posterior scalp. It passes superficially over the posterior triangle to drain into the extern...

Anterior jugular vein

The anterior jugular vein is a paired tributary of the external jugular vein. Gross anatomy Location It arises beneath the chin in the region of the hyoid bone or suprahyoid neck. Origin and course The anterior jugular vein has its origin as the confluence of several small superficial subma...

Pulmonary necrotizing granuloma

Pulmonary necrotizing granuloma refers to rather blanket term covering a group of entities which can result in granuloma formation with associated necrosis. Pathology On a pathologic specimen a necrotizing granuloma comprises of aggregates of macrophages transformed into epithelium-like cells...

Terminal zones of myelination

The terminal zones of myelination are located at the posterior aspect of the lateral ventricles (the peritrigonal regions) and are the only part of the cerebral white matter that may exhibit high T2 signal in a normal brain at 2 years of age, when myelination of cerebral white matter normally be...

Medial temporal lobe atrophy score

The medial temporal lobe atrophy (MTA) score, also known as Scheltens' scale, is useful in distinguishing patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease from those without impairment 2 is helpful in the assessment of patients with possible dementia (see neurodegenerative MRI brain...

Posterior atrophy score of parietal atrophy

The posterior atrophy score, a.k.a. Koedam score, has been developed to enable visual assessment of parietal atrophy on MRI, and is useful in the assessment of patients with possible dementia, especially atypical or early onset Alzheimer's disease (see: neurodegenerative MRI brain: an approach) ...

Fazekas scale for white matter lesions

The Fazekas scale is used to simply quantify the amount of white matter T2 hyperintense lesions usually attributed to chronic small vessel ischemia, although clearly not all such lesions are due to this. This classification was proposed by Fazekas et al. in 1987 1 and at the time of writing (la...

Atlanto-occipital assimilation

Atlanto-occipital assimilation is the fusion of the atlas (C1) to the occiput and is one of the transitional vertebrae. Epidemiology Atlanto-occipital assimilation occurs in approximately 0.5% (range 0.08-3%) of the population 2-5. It is thought to affect males and females equally. Associati...

Hand radiograph (an approach)

Hand radiographs are commonplace in the Emergency Department or the trauma reporting list. Systematic review Choosing a search strategy and utilizing it consistently is a helpful method to overcome common errors seen in diagnostic radiology. The order in which you interpret the radiograph is ...

Imaging the shoulder

Imaging the shoulder is often reliant on multi-modality imaging. The shoulder is a complex ball-and-socket joint that relies on the structural integrity of the glenoid labrum and accompanying shoulder ligaments and rotator cuff muscles to function. Acute trauma may result in bony, labral, ligam...

Wrist radiograph

Wrist radiographs are ubiquitous in emergency departments. They are commonly performed in the pediatric and elderly populations after a fall on an outstretched hand as well as in patients after higher force trauma. Moreover, they may be performed as part of a skeletal survey looking for metaboli...

Styloid process

The styloid process of the temporal bone is a slender osseous projection that points anteroinferiorly from the inferior surface of the petrous part of the temporal bone. It serves as an anchor point for several muscles associated with the tongue and larynx: styloglossus muscle stylohyoid musc...

Tympanic part of temporal bone

The tympanic part of the temporal bone is situated inferiorly to the squamous part and anteriorly to the mastoid part. Gross anatomy The tympanic part of the temporal bone is composed of anterior and posterior surfaces and superior, inferior and lateral borders. Anterior surface Its anterior...

Petrous part of temporal bone

The petrous part of the temporal bone (or more simply petrous temporal bone, PTB) forms the part of skull base between the sphenoid and occipital bones. Gross anatomy The petrous temporal bone has a pyramidal shape with an apex and a base as well as three surfaces and angles: apex (petrous a...

Mastoid part of temporal bone

The mastoid part of the temporal bone is its posterior component. The inferior conical projection of the mastoid part is called the mastoid process. Gross anatomy An irregular cavity within the anterosuperior aspect of the bone is called the mastoid (or tympanic) antrum, which communicates wit...

Squamous part of temporal bone

The squamous part of the temporal bone (or squamous temporalis/squamous temporal bone) is a very thin bone and forms the anterosuperior aspect of the temporal bone. Gross anatomy The squamous temporal bone's outer convex surface provides attachment to the temporalis muscle and forms a boundary...

Mastoid air cells

The mastoid air cells (cellulae mastoideae) represent the pneumatization of the mastoid part of the temporal bone and are of variable size and extent. Gross anatomy At the superior and anterior part of the mastoid process the air cells are large and irregular and contain air, but toward the i...

White pyramid sign (kidney)

The white pyramid sign, also known as dense renal medulla sign (DRM) or hyperdense renal pyramids sign, refers to the CT appearance of the medullary pyramids of the kidney which can be seen normally on unenhanced CT scans as high-attenuation triangular structures. Pathology Etiology incidenta...

Neurodegenerative MRI brain (an approach)

Imaging of the brain in patients with suspected neurodegenerative conditions is common and challenging, as in patients with subtle and equivocal signs and symptoms, the imaging findings are also often subtle and equivocal. In many instances, by the time imaging findings are clear cut, then the p...

T2 washout

T2 washout is a phenomenon encountered on diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) which results in DWI images (e.g. b = 1000) appearing normal despite abnormal ADC maps. For the phenomenon to occur a particular combination of ADC and T2 signal intensity is required: increased T2 signal facilitated ...

Skeletal survey

A skeletal survey is a series of radiographs, performed systematically to cover the entire skeleton or the anatomic regions appropriate for the clinical indications. Its objective is to accurately identify focal and diffuse abnormalities of the skeleton and to differentiate them from developmen...

Middle cranial fossa

The middle cranial fossa is a butterfly-shaped depression of the skull base, which is narrow in the middle and wider laterally. It houses the temporal lobes of the cerebrum. Gross anatomy The middle cranial fossa can be divided into medial and lateral parts. In the medial part, the following s...

Anterior cranial fossa

The anterior cranial fossa constitutes the floor of the cranial vault which houses the frontal lobes of the brain. Gross anatomy Structures present in the midline of the anterior cranial fossa from anterior to posterior are: groove for superior sagittal sinus groove for anterior meningeal v...

Base of the skull

The base of the skull (or skull base) forms the floor of the cranial cavity and separates the brain from the structures of the neck and face. The skull base and vault collectively form the neurocranium. Gross anatomy The base of the skull is a bony diaphragm composed of a number of bones - fro...

Styloglossus muscle

The styloglossus muscle is one of the extrinsic tongue muscles. Summary origin: the apex of the styloid process adjacent to the origin of the stylomandibular ligament, and deep fibers of the ligament itself insertion: merges with the hyoglossus and inferior longitudinal muscle of the tongue ...

Mandibular fossa

The mandibular fossa or glenoid fossa is the smooth concave articular surface formed by both the squamous and petrous parts of the temporal bone. It forms the superior articular part of the temporomandibular joint and lodges the condyle of mandible.

Pure ground glass nodules

Pure ground glass lung nodules (pGGN's) are a subtype of ground glass lung nodules where there is no associated solid component. Pathology Etiology Apart from inflammatory foci they have been shown to represent various pathologies such as 1,3 adenocarcinoma in situ of lung minimally-invasiv...

Tophus

Tophi (plural of tophus) usually appear as lumps on the skin over affected joints due to deposits of monosodium urate crystals in patients with longstanding high levels of serum uric acid (hyperuricemia). Tophi are a pathognomonic feature of gout. Clinical presentation Tophi are firm, yellow, ...

Temporal bone

The temporal bone is situated on the sides and the base of the cranium and lateral to the temporal lobe of the cerebrum. The temporal bone is one of the most important calvarial and skull base bones. Gross anatomy The temporal bone is divided into several main parts/portions 1-3: squamo...

Parietal foramen

The parietal foramina are inconstant foramina on each side of the posterior aspect of the parietal bone near the sagittal suture and represent a normal anatomic variant. They transmit emissary veins, draining to the superior sagittal sinus, and occasionally a branch of the occipital artery. The ...

Jugular fossa

The jugular fossa is a depression situated on the inferior surface of the petrous temporal bone posterior to the inferior opening of the carotid canal. It lodges the jugular bulb. Anteriorly lies the jugular foramen. Related pathology jugular paraganglioma is the most common tumor of the jugul...

Pediatric shoulder radiograph (an approach)

Pediatric shoulder radiographs are usually performed after trauma in older children. However, seat-belt injuries during motor vehicle accidents can cause shoulder trauma at any age. Birth trauma may also be factor. Systematic review Clavicle Check the cortex and review alignment: if there is...

Carotid canal

The carotid canal is a passage within the petrous temporal bone and transmits the internal carotid artery, internal carotid venous plexus, and sympathetic plexus. Its inferior opening is called the carotid foramen and is situated anteriorly to the jugular fossa and medially to the carotid plate....

Shoulder radiograph (an approach)

Shoulder radiographs are common films to see in the Emergency Department, especially during the weekend after sporting events. Systematic review Choosing a search strategy and utilizing it consistently is a helpful method to overcome common errors seen in diagnostic radiology. The order in whi...

Epidural angiolipoma

Epidural angiolipomas are rare benign tumors composed of mature adipocytes and abnormal vessels. Epidemiology Epidural angiolipomas are more frequently encountered in women, and typically in middle age (40-50 years of age) 1. Clinical presentation In keeping with the slow growth of these t...

Angiolipoma

Angiolipomas are rare soft tissue tumors composed of mature adipocytes and vessels. They most commonly arise in the subcutaneous tissues of the extremities. Please refer to the epidural (spinal) angiolipoma article for a specific discussion. The remainder of this article describes the general f...

Otic ganglion

The otic ganglion is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head and neck. It receives parasympathetic fibers from the glossopharyngeal nerve. It supplies the parotid gland with not just parasympathetic, but also sympathetic and sensory fibers that pass through the gland. Gross anatomy sma...

Proximal femoral fractures

Proximal femoral fractures are a subset of fractures that occur in the hip region. They tend to occur in older patients, and in those who have osteoporosis. In this group of patients, the fracture is usually the result of low-impact trauma although, in younger patients they are usually victims o...

Infratemporal fossa

The infratemporal fossa is a complex space of the face that lies posterolateral to the maxillary sinus, below the skull base, and between the pharyngeal sidewall and mandibular ramus. It overlaps with the masticator space and prestyloid parapharyngeal space. Gross anatomy The infratemporal fos...

Petrous apex cephalocele

Petrous apex cephalocele is a rare form of cephalocele centered typically in the posterolateral part of Meckel cave with variable extension into the petrous apex. They can be unilateral or bilateral (commoner). Epidemiology There may be a slight female predilection. Clinical presentation The...

Pterygomaxillary fissure

The pterygomaxillary fissure is a triangular shaped lateral opening of pterygopalatine fossa. Gross anatomy It is located in the medial aspect of the temporal fossa and is formed by the divergence of the maxilla from the lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone 3. It connects the infratemp...

Optic canal

The optic canal is a cylindrical canal running obliquely through the lesser wing of sphenoid bone near the base where it joins the body of sphenoid. It transmits the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery (and its associated sympathetic fibers). The optic canal opens into the skull base at the optic ...

Mastoid foramen

The mastoid foramen is a variably-present foramen as well as being variable in its size, number and position. Most commonly, it is located near the posterior margin of the mastoid process, within the temporo-occipital suture. Epidemiology According one publication the prevalence was as follows...

Lesser palatine foramina

The lesser palatine foramina are 2 small foramina representing the openings in the hard palate of the lesser palatine canal (which is a small accessory canal arising form the greater palatine canal). They are located in the posterior palatine bone posterior to the greater palatine foramen and po...

Infraorbital foramen

The infraorbital foramen is located in the maxillary bone. It is the anterior opening of the infraorbital canal, which is the anterior continuation of the infraorbital groove, which course through the floor of the orbit. The canal may reside entirely in the maxillary sinus, suspended from the si...

Inferior orbital fissure

The inferior orbital fissure (IOF) lies in the floor of the orbit inferior to the superior orbital fissure and it is bounded superiorly by the greater wing of sphenoid, inferiorly by maxilla and orbital process of palatine bone and laterally by the zygomatic bone. It opens into posterolateral as...

Incisive foramen

The incisive foramen (also known as nasopalatine foramen or anterior palatine foramen) is the oral opening of the nasopalatine canal. It is located in the maxilla in the incisive fossa, midline in the palate posterior to the central incisors, at the junction of the medial palatine and incisive s...

Lucent liver sign

The lucent liver sign is represented by a reduction of hepatic radiodensity on supine radiograph when there is a collection of free intraperitoneal gas located anterior to the liver.

Greater palatine foramen

The greater palatine foramen is the opening in the posterior hard palate of the greater palatine canal, which is formed between the articulation of maxillary bone and the greater palatine sulcus of palatine bone. The canal is also known as the pterygopalatine canal. A small accessory canal branc...

Sphenopalatine foramen

The sphenopalatine foramen connects the nasal cavity and the pterygopalatine fossa, transmitting the nasopalatine nerve, posterior superior nasal nerves, and sphenopalatine artery and vein. Gross anatomy It is formed at the junction of the sphenopalatine incisure (palatine bone) with the sphen...

Stylomastoid foramen

The stylomastoid foramen is a rounded opening at the inferior end of the facial canal. It is located on the inferior surface of the petrous temporal bone, between the base of the styloid process and the mastoid process of the temporal bone. It transmits the facial nerve and stylomastoid artery (...

Cribriform plate

The cribriform plate (less commonly also called the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid bone) is a sieve-like structure between the anterior cranial fossa and the nasal cavity. It is a part of ethmoid bone and supports the olfactory bulb, which lies in the olfactory fossa. It is perforated by foramin...

Foramen spinosum

The foramen spinosum (plural: foramina spinosa) is located in the posteromedial part of greater wing of sphenoid bone posterolateral to foramen ovale which connects the middle cranial fossa with the infratemporal fossa. It transmits the middle meningeal artery, middle meningeal vein, and (usuall...

Foramen rotundum

The foramen rotundum (plural: foramina rotunda) is located in the middle cranial fossa, inferomedial to the superior orbital fissure at the base of greater wing of the sphenoid bone. Its medial border is formed by lateral wall of sphenoid sinus. It runs downwards and laterally in an oblique path...

Foramen ovale (skull)

Foramen ovale (plural: foramina ovalia) is an oval shaped opening in the middle cranial fossa located at the posterior base of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, lateral to the lingula and foramen lacerum, medial to foramen spinosum. It transmits the mandibular division of the trigeminal ner...

Foramen lacerum

The foramen lacerum (plural: foramina lacera) is a triangular opening located in the middle cranial fossa formed by the continuation of the petrosphenoidal and petroclival fissures. Thus, it is a gap between bones, alternatively termed the sphenopetroclival synchondrosis, rather than a true for...

Foramen cecum (skull)

The foramen cecum of the anterior cranial fossa represents a primitive tract into the nasal space. It is located along the anterior cranial fossa, anterior to the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and posterior to the frontal bone, within the frontoethmoidal suture. It lies at a variable dist...

Condylar canal

The condylar canal, or canalis condylaris, is a skull base canal in the posterior cranial fossa, located in the condylar fossa. It is the largest of the emissary foramina of the skull 1. Summary location: in the condylar fossa of the posterior cranial fossa, posterior to the occipital condyles...

Anterior ethmoidal foramen

The anterior ethmoid foramen is a small opening in the ethmoid bone. It is the anatomical border of the anterior and posterior ethmoid air cells. It transmits the anterior ethmoidal artery, vein and nerve. The anterior ethmoid foramen is situated 25 mm away from the lacrimal crest, 12 mm anteri...

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