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Sano shunt

The Sano shunt is a palliative surgical technique sometimes used as a step in Norwood procedure for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The procedure involves placement of an extracardiac conduit between the right ventricle and main pulmonary artery stump. This technique prevents the reduced diast...

Norwood procedure

The Norwood procedure is a palliative procedure that is the first of three stages in the surgical treatment of hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Procedure The procedure consists of three components: constructing a neo-aorta by side-to-side anastomosis of the main pulmonary artery and ascending...

Coumadin ridge

A coumadin ridge, also called warfarin ridge or left lateral ridge, is a band-like embryological remnant in the left atrium between the left superior pulmonary vein and the left atrial appendage. It is considered an anatomical variant. The ridge is formed by the coalition of the left superior ...

Implantable loop recorder

Implantable loop recorders, also known as insertable cardiac monitors, are small insertable devices that continuously monitor and record cardiac rhythms. They are placed subcutaneously and used for the evaluation of patients with recurrent unexplained episodes of palpitations or syncope. Patien...

CT chest (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest CT is a computed tomography examination of the thoracic cavity performed for a variety of reasons, from suspected cancer to penetrating chest trauma. A CT chest can be performed with or without IV contrast and when I...

Increased cardiothoracic ratio (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Increased cardiothoracic ratio describes widening of the cardiac silhouette on a chest radiograph. This is only of use when making an assessment of a PA chest x-ray since the AP chest x-ray causes the artefactual magnificat...

Miminally invasive direct coronary artery bypass

Minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass (MIDCAB) is a novel method for bypassing diseased coronary arteries that can replace open coronary artery bypass grafts (CABG) in certain situations, most commonly when bypassing the left anterior descending artery (LAD) with a left internal thora...

Pericardial lipoblastoma

Pericardial lipoblastomas are rare benign tumors that usually occur in children less than 3 years of age. They originate from embryonic fat cells and are divided into two forms, based on location 1: superficial form: well-circumscribed and well-encapsulated deep form: not well-circumscribed an...

Pericardial lipoma

Pericardial lipomas are slowly growing benign tumors of the pericardium that are asymptomatic unless large in size, where they can cause pressure symptoms. Radiographic features Echocardiography Tends to be echogenic structure adjacent or inside the pericardium. CT Seen as a fatty attenuati...

Right ventricle

The right ventricle (RV) is the most anterior of the four heart chambers. It receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium (RA) and pumps it into the pulmonary circulation. During diastole, blood enters the right ventricle through the atrioventricular orifice through an open tricuspid valve ...

Ductus arteriosus

The ductus arteriosum (DA) (or arteriosus) is the thick short conduit for blood to bypass the non-ventilated lungs in the fetus. It is located between and connects the proximal left pulmonary artery and the undersurface of the aortic arch distal to the origin of the last branch of the arch, at t...

Fossa ovalis

The fossa ovalis is the small oval depression in the interatrial septum at the site of the closed foramen ovale, which closes once fetal circulation ceases in the first few minutes of postnatal life. It represents the overlapping primary and secondary septa of the interatrial septum. It has a se...

Epicardial lipomatosis

Epicardial lipomatosis or epicardial lipomatous hypertrophy is a form of cardiac lipomatosis and is characterized by the accumulation of non-encapsulated mature adipose tissue in the epicardial space due to hyperplasia of lipocytes. Its exact etiology is not known, but it may be associated with ...

Foramen ovale (cardiac)

The foramen ovale (or ovalis) is the opening in the interatrial septum in the fetal heart that allows blood to bypass the right ventricle and non-ventilated lungs, shunted from the right atrium to the left atrium. Specifically it represents the opening between the upper and lower portions of th...

D-SPECT

D-SPECT represents the next step in the evolution of SPECT technology and is based on a unique acquisition geometry. It has nine arrays of cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors, each of which rotates around its central axis with programmable angular rotation 1. The detectors are very compact al...

Inferior mediastinum

The inferior mediastinum is the box-shaped space in the mediastinum below the transthoracic plane of Ludwig between the wedge-shaped superior mediastinum above and the diaphragm and inferior thoracic aperture below. There are no physical structures that divide the superior and inferior mediastin...

Chordae tendineae

The chordae tendineae (singular: chorda tendinea, is rarely used) are thin strong inelastic fibrous cords that extend from the free edge of the cusps of the atrioventricular valves (the tricuspid and mitral valves) to the apices of the papillary muscles within the right and left ventricles respe...

Papillary muscles

The papillary muscles are thick bands and ridges of endocardial-lined myocardium that project into the lumen of the cardiac ventricles. They essentially represent dominant ventricular trabeculae which attach to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves via the chordae tendineae. During systole, t...

Aortic valve

The aortic valve (AV) is one of the four cardiac valves. It is the semilunar valve that allows blood to exit the left ventricle (LV). It opens during systole and closes during diastole. The valve has left, right, and posterior cusps, the bases of which attach around the valve orifice to a fibrou...

Pulmonary valve

The pulmonary valve or pulmonic valve (PV) is one of the four cardiac valves. It is the semilunar valve that allows blood to exit the right ventricle (RV). It opens during systole and closes during diastole. The valve has anterior, left and right cusps, the bases of which attach around the valv...

Mitral valve

The mitral valve (MV) (or bicuspid valve) is one of the four cardiac valves. It is the atrioventricular valve that allows blood to flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. It opens during diastole and closes during systole. The valve has anterior and posterior leaflets (cusps), the bases...

Tricuspid valve

The tricuspid valve (TV) is one of the four cardiac valves. It is one of the two atrioventricular valves (AVs) and allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. It opens during diastole and closes during systole. The valve has anterior, posterior and septal leaflets (cusps)...

Taussig-Bing anomaly

Taussig-Bing anomaly is a rare congenital heart malformation and is one of the variants of double outlet right ventricle. It consists of transposition of the aorta to the right ventricle and malposition of the pulmonary artery with subpulmonary ventricular septal defect. History and etymology ...

Cardiac fibrous skeleton

The fibrous skeleton of the heart is a complex set of collagenous rings that connect annuli of all four cardiac valves. Between the four annuli are two trigones (right and left) and the membranous portions of the interatrial, interventricular, and atrioventricular septa. The annuli of the two se...

Anatomy curriculum

The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists. General anatomy Neuroanatomy Head and neck anatomy Thoracic anatomy Abdominal and pelvic anatomy Spinal anat...

Left atrial line

A left atrial (LA) line monitors left atrial pressures acting as a surrogate for left ventricular function, preload and afterload. The left atrial line enters from the left superior pulmonary vein and exits the far side of the chest. The left atrial line is a single lumen catheter unlike the ri...

Right atrial line

The right atrial (RA) line monitors RA pressure and is indicative of right ventricular function, preload and afterload. The RA line enters the right atrium through the right atrial appendage, and always exits the right side of the chest medial to the left atrial line. It is typically a double lu...

Coronary microvascular obstruction

Microvascular obstruction (MVO), also known as no-reflow phenomenon, is an established complication encountered in coronary angioplasty for prolonged acute myocardial infarction. Pathology The phenomenon results from obstruction of the myocardial microcirculation, which is composed of vessel...

Left atrial appendage

The left atrial appendage, also known as left auricle, is a pouch-like projection from the main body of the left atrium, which lies in the atrioventricular sulcus in close proximity to the left circumflex artery, the left phrenic nerve, and the left pulmonary veins. Gross anatomy Morphological...

Left atrium

The left atrium (LA) (plural: atria) is one of the four chambers of the heart. It receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary circulation that is then delivered to the left ventricle and then into the systemic circulation. Gross anatomy The left atrium is grossly cuboidal. It is the most supe...

Infective endocarditis

Infective endocarditis is defined as infection of the endocardium. It commonly affects the valve leaflets and chordae tendineae, as well as prosthetic valves and implanted devices. Epidemiology Infective endocarditis has an estimated general prevalence of 3 to 9 cases per 100,000. Intravenous ...

Superior aortic recess

The superior aortic recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the superior margin of the transverse pericardial sinus and surrounds the root of the ascending aorta. Its components are variable and may be further subdivided into: ...

Postcaval recess

The postcaval recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the transverse pericardial sinus. It is located posterior to the superior vena cava and superior to the right superior pulmonary vein. It may mimic mediastinal lymphadenopathy ...

Left pulmonic recess

The left pulmonic recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the transverse pericardial sinus. It is located posterior to the pulmonary trunk and left pulmonary artery. It may mimic mediastinal lymphadenopathy or a bronchogenic cyst.

Right pulmonic recess

The right pulmonic recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the transverse pericardial sinus. It is located posterior to the right pulmonary artery and anterior to the esophagus. It may mimic mediastinal lymphadenopathy or a bronch...

Single coronary artery

Single coronary arteries are rare (incidence 0.03-0.07%), with a higher incidence in patients with congenital heart disease (in particular truncus arteriosus and pulmonary atresia). They occur when there is a single ostium arising from the aorta with no ectopic ostia. There is a wide variety of ...

Sonographic approach to dyspnea (mnemonic)

This mnemonic will help with the sonographic approach to the critically ill patient with dyspnea: CHEST Mnemonic C: collapsed lung (pneumothorax) absence of anterior lung sliding, lung pulse, B-lines, or z-lines these artifacts arise from the pleural interface; their presence would rule ou...

Mitral valve prolapse

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP), also known as Barlow syndrome, is often defined as systolic bowing of the mitral leaflet more than 2 mm beyond the annular plane into the atrium 1. It is a common cause of mitral regurgitation (considered most frequent cause of severe non-ischemic mitral regurgitatio...

Kawashima procedure

Kawashima procedure is a palliative surgical procedure performed in cases of: left isomerism and azygos continuation of the inferior vena cava single functional ventricle single atrium and common atrioventricular valve with or without regurgitation pulmonary stenosis It is performed by crea...

Congenital pulmonary venolobar syndrome

Congenital pulmonary venolobar syndrome is a condition comprising a rare group of cardiac and pulmonary congenital abnormalities occurring variably in combination. The abnormalities include: anomalous pulmonary venous drainage particularly scimitar syndrome with hypogenetic right lung pulmona...

Watchman device

Watchman device is a permanent left atrial appendage closure device, which is percutaneously implanted to prevent embolization of thrombus from the appendage into the systemic circulation in cases of atrial fibrillation. It is used when there is a contraindication to anticoagulation or high risk...

Parachute device

A parachute device or ventricular partitioning device is a percutaneously inserted cardiac device aimed at improving cardiac output and reducing cardiac remodeling in patients following myocardial infarction. Principle The device consists of an umbrella shaped frame with a overlying membrane, ...

Cervical aortic arch

Cervical aortic arches are a rare aortic arch anomaly characterized by an elongated, high-lying aortic arch extending at or above the level of the medial ends of the clavicles. Clinical presentation Patients with cervical aortic arch are usually asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients may present w...

Rapid ultrasound in shock

The rapid ultrasound in shock (RUSH) protocol is a structured point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed at the time of presentation of a shocked patient. It is a more detailed and longer exam than the FAST scan, with the aim to differentiate between hypovolemic, cardiogenic, obstruc...

Unifocalisation procedure

A unifocalisation procedure is a corrective surgical technique used in patients with complete pulmonary artery atresia with major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs). In this technique, the collateral vessels supplying blood from the aorta directly to the lungs are brought into continuit...

Total repair of tetralogy of Fallot

Total repair of tetralogy of Fallot is a corrective surgical procedure that involves closure of the ventricular septal defect (VSD) and relief of right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) obstruction. Procedure Most patients with tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) undergo elective surgical repair between ...

Raghib syndrome

Raghib syndrome is a rare developmental complex. It consists of: persistence of the left superior vena cava coronary sinus ostial atresia atrial septal defect It has also been associated with other congenital malformations including ventricular septal defects, enlargement of the tricuspid an...

Cardiac imaging planes

Cardiac imaging planes are standard orientations for displaying the heart on MRI, CT, SPECT, and PET, similar to those used in echocardiography. The planes are defined in reference to the long axis of the left ventricle, which is the line that connects the ventricular apex to the center of the m...

Non-bacterial thrombotic endocarditis

Non-bacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE), also known as marantic endocarditis, refers to fibrin and platelets' aggregations on previously undamaged heart valves, in the absence of bacteremia. The condition is seen in advanced stage malignancies and is related to multisystemic emboli. Epide...

Third mogul sign

The third mogul sign can be seen on frontal chest radiograph in the presence of left atrial enlargement. It refers to an extra mogul or bump along the upper left cardiac silhouette just below the left main bronchus. The third mogul sign commonly represents the enlarged left atrial appendage, pa...

Moguls of the heart

The 'moguls of the heart' refer to the bulges of the cardiomediastinal contour on frontal chest radiographs. The cardiomediastinal bulges are likened to skiing moguls (bumps of packed snow on a mountainside sculptured by turning skis). Awareness of their usual locations and etiologies is helpful...

Coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is primarily due to the narrowing of the coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis, which results in myocardial ischemia and is the leading cause of mortality globally. Diagnosis The diagnosis of coronary artery disease is based on typical imaging criteria either ...

Box-shaped heart

A box-shaped heart is a radiographic description given to the cardiac silhouette in some cases of Ebstein anomaly. The classic appearance of this finding is caused by the combination of the following features: huge right atrium that may fill the entire right hemithorax shelved appearance of th...

Left ventricular diverticulum

True diverticula of the left ventricle refer to congenital anomalies affecting the left ventricle. Epidemiology The condition typically occurs in children and is thought to occur in around 0.4% of cases based on autopsy studies. Clinical presentation In isolated cases, they are often asympto...

Boot-shaped heart

A 'boot-shaped' heart ("cœur en sabot" in French) is the description given to the appearance of the heart on plain film in some cases of Tetralogy of Fallot. It describes the appearances of an upturned cardiac apex due to right ventricular hypertrophy and a concave pulmonary arterial segment.

Cabrol shunt

The Cabrol shunt or Cabrol fistula, also known as a perigraft-to-right atrial shunt, is a technique used for uncontrolled bleeding following aortic root operations. Rationale The Cabrol shunt is applied when bleeding from an aortic root reconstruction cannot be controlled by traditional means ...

Chest x-ray (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-rays are performed frequently in the assessment of a vast number of sick (and potentially very sick) patients. A chest x-ray can be performed in the radiology department (usually with the patient standing up) or b...

Metaplasia

Metaplasia is a general pathology term that refers to the process when one cell type is replaced by another. It usually occurs in the context of a changed cellular environment to which the new cell type is better adapted 1. Examples include 2-5: Barrett esophagus: normal squamous epithelium re...

Rastelli procedure

The Rastelli procedure is a surgical procedure to correct certain combinations of cardiovascular defects in patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease. Rationale The operation is based on a redirection of ventricular outflows using an intracardiac baffle that tunnels the left ventricle to...

Glenn shunt

The Glenn shunt, also known as Glenn procedure, is a palliative surgical procedure for a variety of cyanotic congenital heart diseases. Rationale In this procedure, the systemic venous return is re-directed to the pulmonary circulation, bypassing the right heart 1-3. It can be used in a varie...

Cardiac sclerosis

Cardiac sclerosis or cardiac cirrhosis is the end-point of passive hepatic congestion from heart failure. Pathology Etiology Causes of cardiac cirrhosis include 1: ischemic heart disease: ~30% cardiomyopathy: ~25% valvular heart disease: ~25% restrictive lung disease: ~15% pericardial d...

Aortopulmonary septal defect

Aortopulmonary septal defect (APSD), also known as aortopulmonary window (APW), is a congenital anomaly where there is an abnormal communication between the proximal aorta and the pulmonary trunk in the presence of separate aortic and pulmonary valves. Terminology APSD should not be confused w...

Beck triad

Beck triad is a collection of three clinical signs associated with pericardial tamponade which is due to an excessive accumulation of fluid within the pericardial sac. The three signs are: low blood pressure (weak pulse or narrow pulse pressure) muffled heart sounds raised jugular venous p...

Valsalva maneuver

The Valsalva maneuver is the forced expiration of air against a closed airway, resulting in increased intra-abdominal, intrathoracic, and pharyngeal pressure. It can be performed against a closed glottis or by one closing the mouth and pinching the nose while forcibly exhaling. It is commonly u...

Congestive cardiac failure

Congestive cardiac failure (CCF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF) or simply heart failure, refers to the clinical syndrome caused by inherited or acquired abnormalities of heart structure and function, causing a constellation of symptoms and signs that lead to decreased quality and ...

Atrio-esophageal fistula

Atrio-esophageal fistulas are rare pathological connections between the left atrium and the esophagus. Clinical presentation The presentation is non-specific. Patients may complain of fever, malaise, and/or dysphagia, or present with neurological symptoms 3. Pathology The chief cause of at...

Thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) risk score

The thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) risk score is a prognostic risk stratification system that categorizes the risk of death and ischemic events in patients with unstable angina / non-ST elevation myocardial infarction and provides a basis for therapeutic decision making. It is thou...

Cardiac MRI

Cardiac MRI consists of using MRI to study heart anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Advantages In comparison to other techniques, cardiac MRI offers: improved soft tissue definition protocol can be tailored to likely differential diagnoses a large number of sequences are available dynamic...

Earth-heart sign

The earth-heart sign is a sign of cardiac compromise that may be seen on chest radiographs of patients with tension pneumomediastinum. The substantial pressure exerted on the heart by the gas trapped in the mediastinum with subsequent impairment of central venous return and obstruction of diast...

Ross procedure

Ross procedure involves the use of a pulmonary homograft for surgical aortic valve replacement. Indications It can be used to treat a broad array of aortic valve pathologies, often aortic stenosis. Contraindications multivessel coronary artery disease multiple valvular pathologies in which...

Coronary arterial ectasia

Coronary arterial ectasia (CAE) refers to diffuse dilatation of the coronary arteries. Under some classification systems, there is some overlap with the term coronary arterial aneurysms (which is a more focal dilatation). Terminology It is often defined as dilatation of an arterial segment to ...

Takeuchi procedure

The Takeuchi procedure refers to a direct anastomosis of the anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta was described in the 1970s and currently remains the procedure of choice. An intrapulmonary aortocoronary tunnel or baffle was performed by Takeuchi prior ...

Coronary arterial dominance

Coronary arterial dominance is defined by the vessel which gives rise to the posterior descending artery (PDA), which supplies the myocardium of the inferior third of the interventricular septum. Most hearts (80-85%) are right dominant where the PDA is supplied by the right coronary artery (RCA...

Prosthetic cardiac valves on chest x-ray (an approach)

Prosthetic cardiac valves are a routine finding on chest X-ray. The frequency and degree of exposure is greatest in larger hospitals with cardiothoracic centers; however, prosthetic valves are commonplace universally. Recognition of which valve has been replaced, any other related cardiothoraci...

Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a global zoonotic infection secondary to any of the four Brucella spp. that infect humans. It can be focal or systemic but has a particular affinity for the musculoskeletal system. Epidemiology Brucellosis occurs worldwide but is particularly prevalent in Mediterranean regions,...

Left atrial diverticulum

A left atrial diverticulum (LAD) refers to a pouch-like structure with a saclike shape with a broad-based ostium and a smooth contour to its body. They are considered an anatomical variant. Complications some suggest that there may be a possible latent relationship between LA diverticulum and...

Hemopericardium

Hemopericardium refers to the presence of blood within the pericardial cavity, i.e. a sanguineous pericardial effusion. If enough blood enters the pericardial cavity, then a potentially fatal cardiac tamponade can occur. Pathology Etiology There is a very long list of causes 1,2 but some of ...

Interarterial course of the left coronary artery

An interarterial course of the left coronary artery is defined as origination of the left main or left anterior descending coronary artery from the right coronary sinus of Valsalva, with a course between the ascending aorta and the pulmonary artery trunk. Terminology An interarterial course i...

Cardiac valves

The four cardiac valves direct the flow of blood through the heart during the cardiac cycle. Gross anatomy The heart valves are located in the cardiac fibrous skeleton: two are atrioventricular (AV) valves: the right-sided tricuspid valve (TV) and left-sided mitral (bicuspid) valve (MV) open...

Pericardial space

The pericardial space or cavity is the fluid-filled space between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium. In normal conditions, it contains only a small amount of serous pericardial fluid, usually 15-20 mL. Related pathology Pericardial effusion is the pathological accumula...

Acute coronary syndrome

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a group of cardiac diagnoses along a spectrum of severity due to the interruption of coronary blood flow to the myocardium, which in decreasing severity are: ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) unstable an...

Heart chambers

There are four heart chambers, the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and left ventricle. These receive blood from the body and lungs and contract to transmit blood to the lungs for oxygenation and to the body for use in metabolism. It is best to list the four chambers in order of the s...

Lyme disease

Lyme disease, also known as borreliosis, is a condition caused by the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi, with infection being via the ixodid tick. Terminology Controversy around Lyme disease centers on chronic infection with some authors doubting its existence 3. There are some terms that help di...

Pericardial fat pads

Pericardial fat pads are normal structures that lie in the cardiophrenic angle. They are adipose tissues surrounding the heart composed of the epicardial fat, which lies between the myocardium and visceral pericardium, and paracardial fat, which is adherent and external to the parietal pericardi...

Troponin

Troponin is a protein of key importance in the functioning of skeletal and cardiac muscles. It forms part of the contractile mechanism and comprises three main subunits: troponin C, troponin I, and troponin T. Troponin elevation Elevation of serum troponin can occur from a number of causes an...

LCx and LAD arising separately from the left coronary sinus

One of the anatomical variants of coronary artery origin comprises the left circumflex coronary artery (LCx) and left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) arising separately from the left coronary sinus. Hence there is no common left main coronary artery (LCA/LMCA). It considered the commo...

Right ventricular outflow tract view (fetal echocardiogram)

The right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) view (or three vessel view/3VV) is one of the standard views in a fetal echocardiogram. It principally assesses the right ventricular outflow tract. It is a long axis view of the heart, highlighting the path from the right ventricle into the pulmonary t...

Left ventricular outflow tract view (fetal echocardiogram)

The left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) view (or five chamber view) is one of the standard views in a fetal echocardiogram. It is a long-axis view of the heart, highlighting the path from the left ventricle into the ascending aorta (left ventricle outflow tract). In this view, the right vent...

Bentall procedure

Bentall procedure is performed for the repair of ascending aortic root lesions. Typically the native aortic root and aortic valve are replaced with a composite graft that comprises both ascending aortic and aortic valve grafts, to which the coronary arteries are anastomosed. Complications post ...

Coronary artery aneurysm

Coronary artery aneurysms are an uncommon, predominantly incidental finding. Epidemiology Coronary artery aneurysms are most common in men 3, likely reflecting the increased rates of atherosclerosis in men compared to women. Prevalence varies in the literature between 0.1-5% 4. Clinical prese...

Normal chest imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the chest and surrounding structures, divided by modality. Plain radiographs Adult examples chest radiograph PA adult male example 1 example 2: with inverted windows example 3 PA adult female example 1 example 2 example 3: with labels ...

Drug and toxin induced pulmonary hypertension

Drug and toxin induced pulmonary hypertension is one of the causes of pulmonary arterial hypertension. It falls under group 1.3 under the Dana point classification system of pulmonary hypertension. Pathology A wide range of different drugs have been associated with developing pulmonary hypert...

White coat effect

The white coat effect (WCE), not to be confused with white coat hypertension, is a measure of change that is commonly defined as the difference between in-clinic and out-of-clinic blood pressure readings 1,2. Alternatively, the white coat effect can be defined as the increase in the arterial b...

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