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Entorhinal cortical atrophy score

The entorhinal cortical atrophy (ERICA) score has been developed as an alternative to the medial temporal lobe atrophy (MTA) score to help visually identify patients with Alzheimer disease by evaluating the entorhinal cortex for volume loss 1. Usage An ERICA score of 2 or 3 (see below) has bee...

Iris sign

The iris sign is the imaging appearance of deep medullary venous thrombosis/congestion-related white matter injury in neonates created by fan-shaped, outwards radiating hemorrhages or cytotoxic edema in the subcortical and periventricular cerebral white matter. The appearance resembles the flowe...

Sagittal stratum

The sagittal strata are regions of white matter in the posterior brain located around the atria and occipital horns of the lateral ventricles. Gross anatomy The precise anatomical definition has not been agreed upon, but these borders have been proposed 1: medial: tapetum and ventricular epen...

FLAIR-hyperintense lesions in anti-MOG associated encephalitis with seizures (FLAMES)

FLAIR-hyperintense lesions in anti-MOG associated encephalitis with seizures (FLAMES) is a clinicoradiographic sub-entity of MOGAD comprising seizures and FLAIR-hyperintensities on MRI, particularly involving the cerebral cortex 1,2. Epidemiology and treatment are covered in a general discussio...

Fat in dural sinuses

Fat in dural sinuses is usually an incidental finding and generally tends to occur in the torcula but may be seen in all dural sinuses 1. Pathology They are thought to represent normal adipose tissue in the sinus wall. Radiographic features CT Fat in the dural sinuses is seen as fat-densit...

Marginal artery (disambiguation)

The marginal artery may refer to several different arteries in the body, including two different coronary vessels: callosomarginal artery (CNS) marginal artery (of Drummond) obtuse marginal artery (cardiac) right marginal artery (cardiac)

Tourette syndrome

Tourette syndrome is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, involving ~1% of the population. It is characterized by vocal and motor tics 1. Clinical presentation A few of the clinical features of Tourette syndrome include: physical pain social isolation emotional disturbance These patients...

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (nTOS) is the most common cause of thoracic outlet syndrome accounting for approximately 90% of cases. It is caused by compression of the brachial plexus as it passes between the scalenus muscles, over the first rib and posteroinferior to the clavicle before e...

Focal cerebral arteriopathy of childhood

Focal cerebral arteriopathy of childhood, also known as transient cerebral arteriopathy, is characteristically an acute monophasic disease, with unilateral stenosis of the distal internal carotid artery and/or the proximal middle/ anterior cerebral arteries, causing infarction in the lenticulost...

Braid-like sign (spinal sarcoidosis)

The braid-like sign is an imaging pattern of sarcoidosis spinal cord involvement. It is characterized by a ventral subpial enhancement in the spinal cord.

Ghost infarct core

Ghost infarct core refers to the phenomenon that CT perfusion may overestimate infarct core on admission, especially in the early time window of a stroke, by predicting lesion in areas that will not show infarct on follow-up imaging 1. This mismatch is defined as the initial infarct core - final...

Laser interstitial thermal therapy

Laser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT) or focal laser ablation is a surgical technique for selective ablation of a lesion or tissue using laser-generated heat. Compared to other minimally invasive techniques such as radiofrequency, microwave, or cryoablation, lasers are able to create a more ...

Mastoid emissary vein

Mastoid emissary veins (MEV's) are a type of emissary veins representing small venous channels connecting the intracranial and extracranial venous systems. They may have a right sided dominancy and usually run between the sigmoid sinus and posterior auricular or occipital vein by crossing the m...

Walnut kernel microbleed pattern

The walnut kernel microbleed pattern along with the starfield pattern and corpus callosum diffusion restriction appears to be the most important imaging markers of cerebral fat embolism 1-3. In this pattern, there is a diffuse presence of round microbleeds (punctate focal hypointensities) of si...

Hyponatremia

Hyponatremia by definition is described as serum Na <135 meq/l and severe hyponatremia is sodium levels less than 120meq/l. It is seen up to ~30% of patients in ICU settings 1-3. Clinical presentation Development of symptoms in less than 48 hours is called acute hyponatremia, resulting in fits...

Hemorrhage on DWI (mnemonic)

General isotropic DWI signal characteristics of hemorrhage on MRI may be recalled by the mnemonic: Hobbits Love Little Hairy Ladies Mnemonic Hobbits high isotropic DWI signal with reduced ADC values intracellular oxyhemoglobin: hyperacute (<1day) Love low isotropic DWI signal with reduced...

Optic nerve calcification

Optic nerve calcification is a rare radiological finding, with only a short differential diagnosis, many of which have only been described in isolated case reports 1-4. Differential diagnosis optic nerve meningioma optic nerve head drusen idiopathic dural optic nerve sheath calcification ca...

MR cerebral venography

MR cerebral venography (MRV) is an MRI examination of the head with either contrast-enhanced or non-contrast sequences to assess patency of the dural venous sinuses and cerebral veins. NB: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specifics will vary d...

String of pearls sign (watershed infarction)

The string of pearls sign is seen on diffusion-weighted imaging of T2/FLAIR as a series of rounded areas of signal abnormality adjacent to, but separate from, the lateral ventricle. This represents a deep border zone infarct between the penetrating cortical arteries and ascending perforating art...

Diffuse bone marrow infiltration on MRI (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to remember differentials causing diffuse bone marrow infiltration on MRI. Bone marrow infiltration is best evaluated on T1 sequences and may be focal or diffuse. Focal infiltration is seen in metastases and lymphoma. The diffuse pattern is seen more commonly in multiple myeloma, mast...

Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia

Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia is a relatively rare group of conditions consisting of cluster headaches, paroxysmal hemicrania, hemicrania continua, and short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache ...

Anastamoses between internal and external carotid arteries

Multiple, highly-variable anastomoses exist between the internal and external carotid arteries. These anastomoses may not be evident on non-invasive imaging or even catheter angiography, and may only be demonstrable with elevated intra-arterial pressures or high-flow states. Internal carotid ar...

V sign (disambiguation)

Signs inspired by the letter V have been described in several different pathologies: inverted V sign (pneumoperitoneum) inverted V sign (spinal cord) Naclerio V sign (pneumomediastinum) V sign (interphalangeal joint subluxation)

Delta sign (disambiguation)

The delta sign has been described in several different pathologies: delta sign (brain) empty delta sign (brain) double delta sign (MSK)

T sign (disambiguation)

The T sign has been described in several different pathologies: T sign (obstetrics) T sign (elbow MRI) upper T sign (brain) lower T sign (brain) See also tau sign

Retrosigmoid craniotomy

Retrosigmoid craniotomy also known as a suboccipital lateral craniotomy refers to the neurosurgical procedure in which lateral section of the occipital bone is removed to gain surgical access to the wide range of neoplastic and vascular pathologies in the cerebellopontine angle.

Mercedes Benz craniosynostosis syndrome

Mercedes Benz pattern craniosynostosis also known as pure bilateral lambdoid and sagittal synostosis (BLSS) is a pattern of craniosynostosis 1,2. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at around 0.3 - 0.7 % 3. Clinical presentation Cognitive function is grossly normal. Dolichocephalic hea...

Bilateral temporal lobe T2 hyperintensity

Bilateral temporal lobe T2 hyperintensity refers to hyperintense signal involving the temporal lobes on T2 weighted and FLAIR imaging. It is a common finding on brain MRI and a wide range of differentials should be considered 1. Causes include: neurodegenerative disease frontotemporal dementi...

Cerebral cortical calcification

Cerebral cortical calcification or gyral calcification refers to curvilinear calcifications involving the cerebral cortex. Differential diagnosis vascular ischemic stroke sequelae arteriovenous malformation TORCH infection congenital cerebral toxoplasmosis congenital cytomegalovirus infec...

Cerebral cortical T1 hyperintensity

Cerebral cortical T1 hyperintensity or gyriform T1 hyperintensity refers to curvilinear hyperintense signal involving the cerebral cortex on T1-weighted images on brain MRI. Causes include: accumulation of denatured proteins and/or lipid-laden macrophages cortical laminar necrosis 2 accumula...

Cerebral cortical T2 hyperintensity

Cerebral cortical T2 hyperintensity or gyriform T2 hyperintensity refers to curvilinear hyperintense signal involving the cerebral cortex on T2 weighted and FLAIR imaging. The causes include: developmental anomalies focal cortical dysplasia neoplastic glioblastoma1 vascular thrombo-occlusi...

Cerebral cortical restricted diffusion

Cerebral cortical restricted diffusion or gyriform restricted diffusion refers to curvilinear hyperintense signal involving the cerebral cortex on DWI images with a corresponding low signal on ADC images. Causes include: Vascular thrombo-occlusive disease (most common) 1 ischemic stroke cort...

Uvula (disambiguation)

The uvula (plural: uvulae or uvulas) may refer to several different anatomical structures. When used as a standalone term it is usually understood to refer to the soft palate uvula. uvula (soft palate) uvula (cerebellum) uvula (male bladder) History and etymology Uvula is Latin for 'little ...

Choroid plexus infarction

Choroid plexus infarction is an uncommon stroke syndrome that results from ischemic changes of the choroid plexus cells supplied by the medial posterior choroidal artery, a branch from the posterior cerebral artery (PCA). Clinical presentation Isolated choroid plexus infarction is rare and has...

Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks

Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks can present with either conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT) or with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA) are rare headache syndromes that belong to a larger group of headaches known as trigeminal autonomic cephalgia and can present very ...

Cella media

The cella media is another term to denote the body of the lateral ventricle, extending from the foramen of Monro to the ventricular atrium 1. In modern practice, it is seldom if ever used and it is unlikely to be familiar to most clinicians or radiologists.

Wernekink commissure syndrome

Wernekink commissure syndrome (sometimes spelled Wernekinck) is a rare brainstem syndrome caused by lesions (usually infarcts) involving the decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncles (Wernekink commissure) at the caudal midbrain. Clinical presentation The syndrome is characterized by bi...

James Ambrose

James "Jamie" Ambrose (1923-2006) was a neuroradiologist and co-developer of the first CT scanner with physicist Godfrey Hounsfield. Together they performed the first ever CT on a living human patient in 1971 1. Early life James Abraham Edward Ambrose was born on 5 April 1923 in Pretoria, Sout...

Nasal bones (lateral view)

The lateral nasal bones view is a nonangled lateral radiograph showcasing two small oblong bones situated side by side, together forming the nasal ridge. Indications This view is often primarily used in assessing various nasal bone fractures in the trauma setting. Depending on the department, ...

Surfer's myelopathy

Surfer's myelopathy is a rare, non-traumatic spinal cord injury occurring in novice surfers in whom prolonged hyperextension of the back causes infarction of the artery of Adamkiewicz. Terminology These patients are almost always novice surfers 1,2. However, cases of a similar syndrome have be...

Powassan virus

Powassan virus is an emerging tibovirus that can cause aseptic meningitis and meningoencephalitis. Due to a 10 - 15% mortality rate and high incidence of permanent neurological deficits, Powassan virus disease is a nationally notifiable condition 1,2. Epidemiology Powassan virus was first is...

Absent posterior limb sign

The absent posterior limb sign is one of the main MRI findings of prognostic significance in term neonates with suspected hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. An absent posterior limb sign is defined as loss of the normally distinct hyperintensity on T1-weighted images in the posterior part of the pos...

Rocio viral encephalitis

Rocio viral encephalitis is an endemic flavivirus encephalitis that appeared in the Ribeira Valley, located on the south coast of São Paulo, Brazil, between 1975-1976. Epidemiology Rocio virus was first isolated from central nervous system tissue of a deceased 39-year-old male in the Rocio dis...

Saint Louis encephalitis

Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) is an arboviral infection endemic to the Americas that is caused by the Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV). Before the establishment of West Nile virus, SLEV was the leading cause of Flavivirus encephalitis in North America 1. The incidence of SLE has since decr...

Cerebellar cleft

Cerebellar clefts are rare congenital abnormalities of the posterior fossa, where cerebellar grey matter extends from the surface into the parenchyma, in some cases even reaching the fourth ventricle. Clinical presentation Language and speech disorders, cognitive impairment, truncal ataxia, o...

Intracranial atherosclerotic disease

Intracranial atherosclerotic disease (ICAD) is the term applied to atherosclerosis of the large intracranial arteries and is a cause of ischemic stroke. Epidemiology ICAD is an important cause of stroke in certain racial groups particularly Asians, but also Hispanics and Black people. ICAD is ...

Fat containing brain lesions

Intracranial fat is uncommon and a wide range of differentials should be considered. Neoplastic intracranial dermoid cyst intracranial teratoma intracranial lipoma pericallosal lipoma quadrigeminal cistern lipoma suprasellar cistern lipoma cerebellopontine angle lipoma choroid plexus li...

Neuron specific enolase

Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is a cell specific isoenzyme of the glycolytic enzyme enolase. It is sometimes considered as a tumor marker. Elevated neuron specific enolase levels have shown to occur in association with: tumors small cell lung cancer: up to 70% of patients with small cell lu...

Koos grading scale

The Koos grading scale 1 is frequently used as a classification system for vestibular schwannomas. Classification grade 1: small intracanalicular tumor grade 2: small tumor with protrusion into the cerebellopontine cistern (CPA); no contact with the brainstem grade 3: tumor occu...

Riley-Day syndrome

Riley-Day syndrome, also known as familial dysautonomia, is a rare neurodevelopmental genetic autosomal recessive disorder that primarily affects the autonomic nervous system 1,9. Epidemiology Familial dysautonomia is more common in Ashkenazi Jews 1. Clinical presentation Recurrent aspiratio...

Cerebellar, hippocampal, and basal nuclei transient edema with restricted diffusion (CHANTER) syndrome

Cerebellar, hippocampal, and basal nuclei transient edema with restricted diffusion (CHANTER) syndrome is a recently described constellation of imaging findings in adults with opioid neurotoxicity. It is characterized by cytotoxic edema in the bilateral hippocampi and cerebellar cortices, and va...

Opioid-associated amnestic syndrome

Opioid-associated amnestic syndrome is a form of opioid neurotoxicity characterized by acute memory loss and bilateral hippocampal diffusion restriction and/or T2/FLAIR hyperintensity on MRI. Epidemiology About 40 cases have been reported in the English literature as of 2020 1. Fentanyl is th...

Pediatric opioid use‐associated neurotoxicity with cerebellar edema (POUNCE) syndrome

Pediatric opioid use‐associated neurotoxicity with cerebellar edema (POUNCE) syndrome is a toxic encephalopathy in children with opioid overdose that features prominent cerebellar edema. Cerebellar predominance, along with variable supratentorial involvement, appears to be a distinct pattern of ...

Chemical exchange saturation transfer

Chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) imaging is a novel molecular MR technique that enables imaging certain compounds at concentrations that are too low to impact the contrast of standard MR imaging and too low to directly be detected in MRS at typical water imaging resolution 1. Amide ...

REACT syndrome

Reversible acute cerebellar toxicity (REACT) syndrome is a potentially reversible acute encephalopathic syndrome 1,2. Epidemiology REACT is a rare syndrome that has been associated with several opioid and chemotherapeutic agents, including Minnelide 1,2. Clinical presentation Patients typic...

Cerebral varix

Cerebral varices, also known as cerebral venous aneurysms or isolated cerebral varices are uncommon cerebral vascular malformations, rarely found in isolation, hence the name isolated cerebral varix. They are more commonly encountered in association with other vascular malformations, such as dur...

Depth-of-fissure sign

The depth-of-fissure sign, also known as apex-of-fissure sign or bottom-of-fissure sign, is a radiographic sign that helps to recognize cerebellar infarcts in children as well as in adults 1-3. Usage The 'depth-of-fissure' sign is recognized on cross-sectional imaging studies of the brain, es...

Leukoencephalopathy due to autosomal recessive mutations in the mitochondrial alanyl-transfer RNA (tRNA) synthetase gene (AARS2-L)

Leukoencephalopathy due to autosomal recessive mutations in the mitochondrial alanyl-transfer RNA (tRNA) synthetase gene (AARS2-L) refers to a rare, adult-onset leukodystrophy 1. AARS2-L strongly resembles adult-onset leukoencephalopathy with axonal spheroids and pigmented glia (ALSP). Epidemio...

Delirium

Delirium (also known as acute brain failure) is an acute syndrome characterized by impaired intellect, awareness and concentration. Typically, the cognitive impairment fluctuates throughout the day. In contrast to dementia, delirium tends to be reversible. Terminology The number of synonyms fo...

Levene index

The Levene index or ventricular index is a marker of ventricular size in infants. It is defined as the distance between the falx and the lateral wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle in the coronal plane 1. Usage The Levene index is a marker of ventricular volume and thus can be...

Rich focus

Rich focus is the caseating subpial or subependymal foci of tuberculous infection in the cortex of the brain 2. It becomes important when a tuberculous focus discharges its contents into the subarachnoid space or into the ventricular system resulting in tuberculous meningitis. It is most frequen...

Pituitary blastoma

Pituitary blastomas are a very rare type of pituitary tumor. Epidemiology Pituitary blastomas typically affect children under 2 years old. They are almost pathognomonic for DICER1 syndrome and warrant testing for germ-line DICER1 mutation if found 1,2. Clinical presentation Pituitary blastom...

Claustrum sign

The claustrum sign refers to the bilateral claustral involvement seen in febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES). This sign is described on T2 and FLAIR sequences, seen as hyperintensity of both claustra during the acute phase and posterior hypointensity during the chronic phase if ...

Code stroke CT (an approach)

A code stroke CT can be daunting to interpret as not only does it involve many sequences but it also includes CT perfusion with which many radiologists and clinicians alike are relatively unfamiliar. If that wasn’t challenging enough, there is usually the added pressure to make the diagnosis rap...

Carotid pseudo-occlusion

Carotid pseudo-occlusion refers to apparent occlusion of the cervical internal carotid artery on CT angiography or digital subtraction angiography due to a stagnant column of unopacified blood proximal to terminal T-junction occlusion by thromboembolism 1,2. It is important not to mistake this...

Tandem lesion (cerebrovascular)

Tandem lesion (or tandem occlusion) is a term used in cerebrovascular imaging and intervention to refer to the simultaneous presence of high-grade stenosis or occlusion of the cervical internal carotid artery and thromboembolic occlusion of the intracranial terminal internal carotid artery or it...

Benign oligemia

Benign oligemia occurs when the brain's ability to autoregulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) by vasodilation is exceeded and cerebral blood flow begins to reduce. If this reduction is left unchecked, eventually neurological dysfunction and eventual infarction will occur. There is, however, a wind...

Superior petrosal vein

The superior petrosal vein, also known as Dandy’s vein or simply the petrosal vein, is the largest vein in the posterior cranial fossa, draining the anterior aspect of the cerebellum and brainstem into the superior petrosal sinus. Gross anatomy Each superior petrosal vein is usually formed by...

Time-to-Maximum (Tmax)

Time-to-Maximum (Tmax) is a perfusion parameter used both in CT perfusion and MRI perfusion and reflects the time delay between the contrast bolus arriving in the proximal large vessel arterial circulation (arterial input function) and the brain parenchyma 1. It is calculated by deconvoluting th...

Anterior meningocele

Anterior meningocele is characterized by herniation of CSF-filled sac through a an anterior osseous defect. It usually occur in sacral region where is it termed an anterior sacral meningocele although it can also in other areas like the thorax 2. When occurring in the sacrum, it is often fou...

Placode

Placode (or neural placode) refers in terms of radiology to a segment of non-neurulated neural tissue, which has had development frozen in the neural plate stage. A placode can be found in all open spinal dysraphisms and in some closed spinal dysraphisms. In the former, the placode is exposed to...

Stroke protocol (CT)

A CT stroke protocol, often referred to as a code stroke CT, has become a fairly widespread and standardized approach to imaging patients presenting with acute neurological symptoms that may represent cerebral infarction or cerebral hemorrhage (together grouped under the vague term stroke). In...

Lenticulostriate infarct

Lenticulostriate infarcts are lacunar infarcts resulting from occlusion of single lenticulostriate perforating arteries. Terminology They should not be confused with striatocapsular infarcts that represent larger strokes resulting from occlusion of multiple lenticulostriate arteries.

Minamata disease

Minamata disease is a neurologic condition caused by organic mercury poisoning. Epidemiology It is usually caused by the ingestion of methylmercury-contaminated seafood 1. Clinical presentation Typical neurological findings in Minamata disease include: sensory disturbances tunnel vision h...

Hypoglossal nucleus

The hypoglossal nuclei, exist as paired nuclei within the medulla oblongata that provide motor innervation to the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue (excluding palatoglossus) via the hypoglossal nerve. Gross Anatomy The hypoglossal nuclei are located within the tegmentum of upper me...

Morel laminar sclerosis

Morel laminar sclerosis is characterized by cortical laminar necrosis and gliosis, especially affecting the lateral frontal cortex. Pathology Postmortem neuropathologic studies in patients with Marchiafava-Bignami disease have described cortical laminar necrosis and gliosis, mainly in the thir...

Vestibular nuclei

The vestibular nuclei are a group of four small special sensory nuclei in the lower pons and upper medulla for the vestibular nerve component of the vestibulocochlear nerve. They are part of the extensive cranial nerve nuclei within the brainstem. Gross Anatomy The four nuclei are located adja...

Cochlear nuclei

The cochlear nuclei are a group of two small special sensory nuclei in the upper medulla for the cochlear nerve component of the vestibulocochlear nerve. They are part of the extensive cranial nerve nuclei within the brainstem. Gross Anatomy The dorsal and ventral nuclei are located in the dor...

Cranial nerve nuclei

The cranial nerve nuclei are a series of bilateral grey matter motor and sensory nuclei located in the midbrain, pons and medulla that are the collections of afferent and efferent cell bodies for many of the cranial nerves. Some nuclei are small and contribute to a single cranial nerve, such as...

Facial nucleus

The facial nucleus or facial motor nucleus is the efferent nucleus of the facial nerve. Gross Anatomy The nucleus is located in the caudal lower aspect of the pontine tegmentum at the level of the middle cerebellar peduncles. It lies dorsal to the medial lemniscus and ventral and medial to the...

Oculomotor nucleus

The oculomotor nucleus is a small somatic motor nucleus in the midbrain and one of the two nuclei for the oculomotor nerve. Gross Anatomy The nucleus is located in the central midbrain at the level of the superior colliculus ventral and medial periaqueductal grey matter. It lies immediately ve...

Edinger-Westphal nucleus

The Edinger-Westphal nucleus is a small parasympathetic motor nucleus in the midbrain and one of the two nuclei for the oculomotor nerve. It is one of the cranial nerve nuclei. Gross Anatomy The nucleus is located in the central midbrain at the level of the superior colliculus ventral and medi...

Abducent nucleus

The abducent or abducens nucleus is a small motor nucleus in the pons for the abducens nerve. Gross anatomy The nucleus is located in the paramedian dorsal lower pons in the floor of the fourth ventricle lateral to the medial longitudinal fasciculus. The nucleus forms a longitudinal paramedian...

Trochlear nucleus

The trochlear nucleus is a small motor nucleus in the midbrain for the trochlear nerve. Gross Anatomy The nucleus is located in the midbrain at the level of the inferior colliculus ventral and medial periaqueductal grey and dorsal to the medial longitudinal fasciculus. It lies just caudal to ...

Neoplastic intracranial aneurysm

Neoplastic intracranial or cerebral aneurysms, also known as oncotic aneurysms, are a rare type of intracranial aneurysm attributed to metastatic tumor emboli. Epidemiology The entity is rare, with fewer than 100 cases being reported in the English literature at the time of a 2015 systematic r...

Intracranial aneurysm (overview)

Intracranial aneurysms, also called cerebral aneurysms, are aneurysms of the intracranial arteries. The most common morphologic type is the saccular aneurysm. Pathology There is not a universal classification for the types of intracranial aneurysms, resulting in a heterogeneous mix of terms ba...

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (more commonly known as the DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association and is the most widely used guide to psychiatric diseases in clinical practice and research globally. The first edition was published in 1952; the lates...

Dorsal vagal nucleus

The dorsal vagal nucleus, also known as the vagal nucleus, dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve or the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, is a elongated nucleus within the medulla oblongata that provides parasympathetic motor innervation to the viscera of the thorax and abdomen. It is the lar...

Orgogozo stroke scale

The Orgogozo stroke scale was designed to assess middle cerebral artery stroke 1-3. This scale's use has become rarer in contemporary literature due to the widespread adoption of the NIH Stroke Scale, however basic knowledge may assist interpretation of older literature 4,5. Classification co...

Calcar avis

Calcar avis is an elevation of white matter projecting from the medial wall of the occipital horn of the lateral ventricle. It is variably conspicuous, depending on how deep the calcarine sulcus is. Gross anatomy The calcar avis is located on the medial wall of the occipital horn, near the ju...

Scandinavian Stroke Scale

The Scandinavian Stroke Scale was designed for ease of use by non-neurologists1. It is simpler than the NIHSS and has comparable performance in predicting death or dependence after stroke 2. The degree of neurological impairment measured by the Scandinavian Stroke Scale has been shown to correla...

Endosaccular flow disruption devices

Endosaccular flow disruption devices, also simply known as flow disruptors, are used for the treatment of either ruptured or unruptured saccular, wide-neck, usually bifurcation as well as side-wall intracranial aneurysms. Their primary function is to stop blood from flowing into the aneurysm, al...

Wernicke's Korsakoff (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to recall some of the important features of Wernicke's Korsakoff syndrome is: COMBAT Mnemonic C: confusion, confabulatory amnesia O: ophthalmoplegia M: mamillary bodies B: B1(vitamin), bariatric surgery A: alcoholics T: thalami, tectal plate, third ventricle

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