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Central nervous system embryology

Central nervous system (CNS) embryology is complex, and below is a brief summary of its development. The early CNS begins as a simple neural plate that folds to form a groove then tube, open initially at each end. Within the neural tube stem cells generate the two major classes of cells that m...

Benign enhancing foramen magnum lesion

Benign enhancing foramen magnum lesions, also described as high signal lesions, have been anecdotally seen by radiologists for years but only recently described as an incidental finding on 3D FLAIR MRI in a typical location in the foramen magnum just posterior to the intradural vertebral artery....

CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (protocol)

CT angiography of the cerebral arteries (also known as a CTA carotids or an arch to vertex angiogram) is a non-invasive technique that allows visualization of the internal and external carotid arteries and vertebral arteries and can include just the intracranial compartment or also extend down t...

McDonald diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis

McDonald diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis are clinical, radiographic, and laboratory criteria used in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. They were originally introduced in 2001 and revised multiple times (see "previous versions" below) most recently in 2017 5. Criteria The diagnos...

Anterior epitympanic recess

The anterior epitympanic recess, also known as the supratubal recess, is a small discrete space in the epitympanum anterior to the malleus. It is separated from the epitympanum proper by the cog.

Central control of respiration

A number of cell groups in the reticular formation of the pons and medulla are responsible for the central control of the respiratory cycle: inspiratory center (a.k.a. dorsal respiratory group) - bilateral groups of cells in the region of the nucleus of the tractus solitarius in the dorsum of t...

Lenticulostriate vasculopathy

Lenticulostriate vasculopathy also known as thalamostriate vasculopathy or mineralizing vasculopathy 1, refers to the ultrasound appearance of hyperechogenic linear or branching tubular streaks in the thalami or basal ganglia of neonates. Epidemiology Lenticulostriate vasculopathy has been rep...

Ventriculogallbladder shunt

Ventriculogallbladder shunts, also known as ventriculocholecystic shunts 5, are a rarely employed form of cerebrospinal fluid diversion, used when a ventriculoperitoneal shunt is not possible (e.g. intra-abdominal adhesions, peritonitis). Differential diagnosis a ventriculoperitoneal shunt in ...

Inverted "V" sign (spinal cord)

The inverted "V" sign, also known as the inverted rabbit ears sign, is a radiological sign described in subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. It refers to the appearance of the spinal cord on axial MRI slices 1-3. On these slices in a patient with subacute combined degeneration of...

Todd paralysis

Todd paralysis, also known as Todd paresis or postictal paralysis, describes transient focal neurological deficits after an epileptic seizure. It is an important clinical and imaging differential diagnosis of ischemic stroke presenting with a seizure. Epidemiology The incidence of Todd paral...

Intracranial hemorrhage (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Intracranial hemorrhage refers to bleeding within the intracranial cavity and is, therefore, a catch-all term which includes parenchymal (intra-axial) hemorrhage and the various types of extra-axial hemorrhage including, su...

Luxury perfusion

Luxury perfusion describes blood flow in excess of local metabolic requirements to regions of infarcted brain. Following a cerebral infarct, cerebral blood flow (CBF) typically returns to normal or elevated levels compared to normal brain. It is thought to occur secondary to blood-brain barrier...

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) is one of the most common causes of vertigo. It occurs secondary to change in posture and typically is associated with nystagmus. The etiology is thought to be due to changes of position of the otoliths in the inner ear, most commonly into the posterio...

Vermian lobulation

Evaluation of vermian lobulation is essential in assessment of the vermian maturity. MRI is a useful tool in assessment of the fetal posterior fossa. Radiographic features Normal vermian lobulation by weeks 1: by 21 weeks: the prepyramidal fissure can be seen between the tuber and pyramis 21...

Tegmentovermian angle

The tegmentovermian angle is an important measurable parameter in the assessment of posterior fossa abnormalities in the fetus. The angle is constructed on midsagittal images of the fetal brain, ideally on MRI. The angle is formed by the intersection of the following two lines 1: line 1: along...

Vermian maturity assessment (approach)

Radiological evaluation of the posterior fossa is an essential part of the routine fetal assessment, including vermian maturity assessment. Radiographic features Ultrasonography is a readily available diagnostic tool in the assessment of the fetal posterior fossa but is sometimes limited due t...

Spinal subdural space

The spinal subdural space is a potential area between the spinal arachnoid mater and the spinal dura mater. Unlike the cranial subdural space, the spinal subdural space does not contain any bridging veins, and thus hemorrhage into this area only occurs in very rare cases 1. It only contains a ...

Urbach-Wiethe disease

Urbach-Wiethe disease, also known as lipoid proteinosis or hyalinosis cutis et mucosae, is a rare autosomal recessive genodermatosis that primarily affects the skin, upper respiratory tract, and central nervous system. Epidemiology Urbach-Wiethe disease is a very rare condition, with fewer tha...

Endovascular clot retrieval (ECR)

Endovascular clot retrieval (ECR) is increasingly performed in patients presenting with emergent large vessel occlusion (ELVO), especially those with a large ischemic penumbra that is likely to progress to ischemic stroke. To be successful, careful patient selection and dedicated training and eq...

Transition zone (nerve)

The transition zone of a nerve, also known as the Obersteiner-Redlich zone, describes a region of a few millimeters where the myelin sheath changes from a central to peripheral type as enveloping glial cells are replaced by Schwann cells. Gross anatomy Transition zone locations 1: CN V: 4 mm ...

Modified Rankin scale

The modified Rankin scale is commonly used to quantify functional outcome in individuals who suffer a neurological event. The scale was initially described by Rankin in 1957 to assess the outcome of cerebrovascular accidents 1. It has subsequently been modified 2,3 and has been used in a wide va...

Duane syndrome

Duane syndrome, also known as Duane retraction syndrome, is a rare congenital disease characterized by non-progressive strabismus. It is caused by a variable degree of abnormal development of one or both 6th cranial nerves (CN VI). Epidemiology It presents during childhood and it accounts for ...

Dorsal root ganglion

The dorsal root ganglia are an enlargement of the dorsal root of spinal nerves representing the cell bodies of the primary somatosensory neurons. Gross anatomy Each dorsal root ganglion is oval and proportional in size to its related root. They are usually found just distal to the intervertebr...

Nervus intermedius neuralgia

Nervus intermedius neuralgia, or geniculate neuralgia, corresponds to a clinical manifestation of sudden paroxysms of excruciating otalgia which usually lasts a few seconds to a few minutes, involving the nervus intermedius (intermediate nerve of Wrisberg). Epidemiology Nervus intermedius neur...

Osteopathia striata with cranial sclerosis

Osteopathia striata with cranial sclerosis (OS-CS) is a clinically separate entity from osteopathia striata (Voorhoeve disease). Bony changes on their own are typically incidental and autosomal dominant, whereas OS-CS is a multisystem, X-linked dominant disorder. Epidemiology OS-CS is extremel...

Kernicterus

Kernicterus, also known as chronic bilirubin encephalopathy, describes the chronic, toxic, permanent sequelae of high levels of unconjugated bilirubin on the central nervous system of infants. It is part of the spectrum of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction, which also includes acute bilir...

Combined conduit score of sinovenous stenosis

The combined conduit score (CCS) is a grading scheme for the assessment of the degree of transverse-sigmoid sinus stenosis in the setting of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. The score was initially developed for ATECO MR venography 1. Parameters Assessment is performed using maximum inten...

Subiculum

The subiculum (plural: subicula) is located in the mesial temporal lobe and is a subdivision of the hippocampal formation, along with Ammon’s horn, the entorhinal cortex and the hippocampus proper. It is the predominant output source of the hippocampal formation. Structure The subiculum occup...

Myelencephalon

The myelencephalon (plural: myelencephala or myelencephalons) is a secondary vesicle of the neural tube derived from the rhombencephalon. The myelencephalon goes on to become the medulla oblongata, and its CSF-filled cavity, the central canal. However it should be noted that the myelencepha...

Metencephalon

The metencephalon (plural: metencephala or metencephalons) is a secondary brain vesicle derived from the rhombencephalon, formed in the 5th week of embryonic life. Development The metencephalon goes on to form the pons, the majority of the cerebellum and the fourth ventricle. The most ros...

Transsphenoidal basilar skull fracture

Transsphenoidal basilar skull fractures are a particularly serious type of basilar skull fracture usually occurring in the setting of severe traumatic brain injury and with potential for serious complications including damaging the internal carotid arteries and optic nerves as well as high incid...

Medial longitudinal fasciculus

The medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) is a myelinated composite fiber tract found in the brainstem. The MLF primarily serves to coordinate the conjugate movement of the eyes and associated head and neck movements. Gross anatomy Containing both ascending and descending fiber tracts, the MLF ...

Foster Kennedy syndrome

Foster Kennedy syndrome describes the clinical syndrome of unilateral optic atrophy with contralateral papilledema caused by an ipsilateral compressive mass lesion. Clinical presentation The syndrome consists of two cardinal features, in relation to a mass lesion 1,2: ipsilateral optic nerve ...

Basilar fractures of the skull

Basilar fractures of the skull, also known as base of skull fractures, are a common form of skull fracture, particularly in the setting of severe traumatic head injury, and involve the base of the skull. They may occur in isolation or often in continuity with skull vault (calvarial) fractures or...

Syringocephalus

Syringocephalus , also known as syringoencephalomyelia, is a very rare entity and refers to a syrinx that extends into the cerebrum 1. Clinical presentation Patients with this condition demonstrate a wide variety of focal neurological symptoms depending on where the syrinx is located 1. Patho...

Syringomesencephaly

Syringomesencephaly is a very rare entity and refers to a syrinx that extends into the midbrain 1. Clinical presentation Patients with this condition demonstrate a wide variety of neurological symptoms localized to the brainstem and spinal cord, depending on where exactly the syrinx is located...

Syringopontia

Syringopontia is a rare entity and refers to a syrinx that extends into the pons 1. Clinical presentation Patients with this condition demonstrate a wide variety of neurological symptoms localized to the pons, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord, depending on where exactly the syrinx is located...

Spaceflight-induced cerebral changes

Spaceflight-induced cerebral changes, or microgravity-induced cerebral changes, refer to the effects of prolonged microgravity exposure, through spaceflight, on the brain and surrounding structures. Epidemiology As the name suggests, spaceflight-induced cerebral changes are limited to patients...

Battle sign (base of skull fracture)

Battle sign is an eponymous term given to mastoid ecchymosis (bruising of the scalp overlying the mastoid process) and is strongly suggestive of a base of skull fracture, most commonly a petrous temporal bone fracture. History and etymology Mr William Henry Battle (1855-1936) was an English s...

Inferior occipital sulcus

The inferior occipital sulcus is found on the lateral aspect of the occipital lobe and separates the middle and inferior occipital gyri. It can be sometimes considered a posterior extension of the inferior temporal sulcus.

Skull fractures

Skull fractures are common in the setting of both closed traumatic brain injury and penetrating brain injury. Their importance is both as a marker of the severity of trauma and because they are, depending on location, associated with a variety of soft tissue injuries. This article will focus o...

Causes of dementia (mnemonic)

The causes of dementia can be remembered using the mnemonics: VANISHED DEMENTIA VANISHED V: vascular, vitamin deficiency: B1, B6, B12, folate A: Alzheimer disease, autoimmune: cerebral vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosus N: normal pressure hydrocephalus, neoplasia I: infection, e.g. ...

Ventral horn

The ventral horn of the spinal cord is one of the grey longitudinal columns found within the spinal cord. It contains the cell bodies of the lower motor neurons which have axons leaving via the ventral spinal roots on their way to innervate muscle fibers. Gross anatomy On transverse section of...

Medial lemniscus

The medial lemniscus, also known as Reil's band, is an ascending bundle of myelinated axons extending from the gracile and cuneate nuclei in the dorsal medulla up to the contralateral thalamus. Gross anatomy The medial lemniscus is part of the larger dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway, imp...

Megalencephaly-capillary malformation syndrome

Megalencephaly-capillary malformation (MCAP) syndrome, also known as macrocephaly-capillary malformation syndrome, is a rare and well described genetic disorder caused by somatic mutations in the PIK3CA gene on chromosome 3q26 and characterized by early brain overgrowth and body morphogenesis an...

Lateral horn

The lateral horn of the spinal cord is the small lateral projection of grey matter located between the dorsal horn and ventral horn and contain the neuronal cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system. Gross anatomy On transverse section of the spinal cord, the spinal grey matter is describe...

Dorsal horn

The dorsal horn of the spinal cord is one of the grey longitudinal columns found within the spinal cord. It primarily acts as the termination of primary afferent fibers via the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves. Gross Anatomy On transverse section of the spinal cord the spinal grey matter is d...

Central canal

The central canal is the longitudinal CSF-filled space which runs the entire length of the spinal cord and represents the most caudal portion of the ventricular system. It is lined by ependyma. Gross anatomy The central canal spans the length of the spinal cord from the caudal angle of the fou...

Substantia innominata

The substantia innominata (plural: substantiae innominatae), or substantia innominata of Meynert, is an area of mixed grey and white matter located within the anterior perforated substance in the basal forebrain. It contains the acetylcholine-rich basal nucleus of Meynert. Gross anatomy The s...

Internal auditory canal diverticulum

An internal auditory canal (IAC) diverticulum or notch, also known as cupping of the internal auditory canal, is a small focal outpouching arising from the anterolateral wall of the internal acoustic canal (IAC). This is a benign normal variant and distinct from, although may occur in conjunctio...

Contrast-induced neurotoxicity

Contrast-induced neurotoxicity, also known as iodinated contrast-induced encephalopathy, is a rare complication of iodinated intravascular contrast resulting in a usually temporary neurological deficit. CT imaging findings can be dramatic, demonstrating contrast staining and edema, but spontaneo...

Lumbar cistern

The lumbar cistern refers to the subarachnoid space in the lower lumbar spinal canal. The cistern is an enlargement of the subarachnoid space in the dural sac, distal to the conus medullaris. It contains cerebrospinal fluid and the nerve roots of the cauda equina. As the conus (usually) termina...

Spinal subarachnoid space

The spinal subarachnoid space is the space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the spine and is continuous with the intracranial subarachnoid space. It communicates with the intracranial subarachnoid space via the foramen magnum and ends at the level of the S2 vertebra. It is a relat...

Spinal dura mater

The spinal dura mater is the outermost layer of the meninges that surround the spinal cord. Gross Anatomy The spinal dura mater is a fibrous, non-adherent, tough layer surrounding the spinal cord. Unlike the intracranial dura mater, it only has a single layer which is continuous with the inner...

Spindle cell oncocytomas of the pituitary gland

Spindle cell oncocytomas of the pituitary gland, also referred to as adenohypophysis spindle cell oncocytomas, are rare, low-grade nonfunctional tumors commonly showing clinical and radiologic presentations mostly indistinguishable from the much more common non-secretory pituitary macroadenomas....

Anterior perforated substance

The anterior perforated substance, or substantia perforata anterior, is an area in the basal forebrain that plays an important role with regards to the blood supply of deep grey matter structures of the brain. Gross anatomy Located within the basal forebrain, the anterior perforated substance...

Low-velocity penetrating brain injury

Low-velocity penetrating brain injuries are relatively uncommon, far less frequently encountered than blunt traumatic brain injuries, and depending on the country more or less common than high-velocity penetrating brain injuries from gunshot wounds. Epidemiology The demographics of affected i...

Interseptal distance

The interseptal distance (ISD) is a measurement used to assess septal area atrophy as a marker for neurodegenerative conditions in patients with memory problems 1. It is proposed that atrophy of the septal nuclei can commonly be seen in conditions associated with hippocampal atrophy, particular...

Olfactory system

The olfactory system transmits smell from detection of odorants at the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity to the primary olfactory cortex. It is phylogenetically the most ancient sensory tract and terminates on primitive cortical areas. Gross anatomy Primary olfactory neurons are bipola...

Posterior commissure

The posterior commissure (PC) is a transversely-oriented commissural white matter tract that connects the two cerebral hemispheres along the midline. It is a very important anatomical landmark which is thought to play a role in the visual system, however its functions are still largely unknown. ...

Ocular globe

The ocular globes or simply, the eyes are paired spherical sensory organs, located anteriorly on the face within the orbits, which house the visual apparatus. Gross anatomy Location The globe is suspended by the bulbar sheath in the anterior third of the bony orbit. Size Each globe is an a...

Intraparietal sulcus

The intraparietal sulcus together with the postcentral sulcus, is one of the two main sulci of the parietal lobe. It runs from the post-central sulcus towards the occipital pole, dividing the lateral parietal lobe into the superior and inferior parietal lobules. The floor of the intraparietal su...

White matter tracts of the spinal cord

The spinal cord has numerous tracts of white matter that ascend and descend in the peripheral substance of the cord. They can be divided by their location and function: anterolateral columns anterior corticospinal tract medial longitudinal fasiculus spinothalamic tracts lateral spinothalami...

Retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukoencephalopathy and systemic manifestations

Retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukoencephalopathy and systemic manifestations (RVCL-S) is an autosomal dominant microvasculopathy of the brain, retina, and other organ systems. Terminology RVCL-S encompasses several previously described conditions 1,2, including cerebroretinal vasculopath...

Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps syndrome

Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps (HANAC) syndrome is an autosomal dominant monogenic COL4A1-related disorder. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown. Clinical presentation The cardinal features of HANAC syndrome are helpfully described in the name of...

COL4A1-related disorders

COL4A1-related disorders are a group of autosomal dominant disorders caused by a mutation in the COL4A1 gene. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown, but the group of disorders is considered to be under-recognized, especially asymptomatic variants 1. Clinical presentation The clinical ...

COL4A1 brain small-vessel disease

COL4A1 brain small-vessel disease is an autosomal dominant monogenic COL4A1-related disorder that primarily causes cerebral small vessel disease. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown, but the condition is likely under-diagnosed. Clinical presentation The clinical presentation is vari...

Enterovirus rhombencephalitis

Enterovirus rhombencephalitis is the most common neurological complication of enterovirus infection 1. Clinical presentation Enterovirus rhombencephalitis causes acute and severe neurologic disorders such as ataxia, nystagmus, oculomotor palsies, or bulbar palsy. In some cases, neurologic affe...

Hemifacial hypertrophy

Hemifacial hyperplasia or hemifacial hypertrophy is a rare developmental anomaly characterized by asymmetric growth of hard and soft tissues of the face 1. Epidemiology These asymmetries are often noted at birth and are usually accentuated with increasing age, especially around puberty 2. The...

RASopathy

RASopathies are a class of developmental disorders caused by germline mutations in genes that encode for components or regulators of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Epidemiology As a group, RASopathies represent one of the most common malformation syndromes, with an in...

Fusiform intracranial aneurysm

Fusiform intracranial aneurysms are a type of intracranial aneurysms with an elongated fusiform shape caused by atherosclerotic disease most common in the vertebrobasilar circulation. Epidemiology 3%-13% of all intracranial aneurysms Clinical presentation They can be incidental or asymptomat...

Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions (differential)

Concurrent suprasellar and pineal region lesions have a relatively short differential to be considered, including: germinoma other germ cell tumors choriocarcinoma embryonal cell carcinoma yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor) primary CNS lymphoma cerebral metastasis quadrilateral ret...

Gracile fasciculus

The gracile fasciculus, also known as the fasciculus gracilis (plural: fasciculi graciles) or column of Goll, represents the medial portion of the dorsal columns and carries input from below and including T7 1. Function The gracile fasciculus is responsible for transmitting vibration, consciou...

Dorsal columns

The dorsal columns, or posterior columns, are ascending pathways primarily concerned with sensory function. They are responsible for transmitting vibration, conscious proprioception, and fine (discriminative) touch 1,2. The dorsal columns are divided two tracts, which are discussed separately 2...

Cochlear incomplete partition

Cochlear incomplete partition is a group of cochlear malformations associated with variable other inner ear architecture defects. These malformations have in common that the cochlea is clearly separated from the vestibule and the external contour of the cochlea is nearly normal in size, but ther...

Interscalar septum

The interscalar septum is a thin bony plate that separates each turn of the cochlea 1. It radiates from the modiolus laterally to the spiral ligament 2. Vessels (venules, arterioles and capillaries) run within the septum through bony canals 2. Related pathology Partial absence of the intersca...

Cochlear incomplete partition type II

Cochlear incomplete partition type II (IP-II) is a type of inner ear malformation, specifically a cochlear incomplete partition, associated with sensorineural hearing loss. It is characterized by a cystic cochlear apex and should not be confused with Mondini anomaly, which is a historic term for...

Asymmetric pneumatization of the petrous apex

Asymmetric pneumatization of the petrous apex is a frequent normal anatomic variant resulting in an appearance that can be mistaken for pathology within the petrous apex; see petrous apex lesions (differential). Clinical presentation As this is an anatomical variant it is entirely asymptomatic...

Adie pupil

Adie pupil (also known as tonic pupil) is caused by idiopathic degeneration of the ciliary ganglion, which sometimes occurs following a viral or bacterial illness. It is usually unilateral and typically affects young females 1. Adie pupil represents a large dilated "tonic pupil", which does not...

Argyll Robertson pupil

Argyll Robertson pupil is usually bilateral and presents as bilaterally miotic and irregular pupils, which constrict briskly with accommodation but do not react to bright light therefore displaying light-near dissociation 1. It is a highly specific sign of late neurosyphilis, however can also ...

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), mediated by the sympathetic chain (trunk) and ganglia, is a major division of the autonomic nervous system. It is composed of general visceral afferent and efferent axons that allow for involuntary control of bodily functions via the hypothalamus. The over...

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (CNS manifestations)

The central nervous system (CNS) is an uncommonly involved organ system in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). Involvement of the CNS is related but distinct from involvement of the skull base or craniofacial structures, which are discussed separately in the article skeletal manifestations of L...

Extradural hemorrhage (venous)

Venous extradural hemorrhages are a relatively uncommon subtype of extradural hemorrhages, differing from arterial extradural hemorrhages not only in etiology, but also location and prognosis. They occur as a result of damage to the dural venous sinuses and often result in the displacement of ...

Aceruloplasminemia

Aceruloplasminemia is an autosomal recessive type of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation and disorder of iron metabolism caused by a mutation in the ceruloplasmin (CP) gene resulting in the production of dysfunctional ceruloplasmin. Epidemiology Aceruloplasminemia is a very rare dis...

Mitochondrial membrane protein-associated neurodegeneration

Mitochondrial membrane protein-associated neurodegeneration (MPAN) is a rare subtype of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation disease (NBIA). Epidemiology MPAN usually presents before 10 years old. At least one case of late-onset (35 years old) has been reported 3. Less than a hundred...

Non-ketotic hyperglycemic seizure

Non-ketotic hyperglycemic seizures are one of the neurological complications of non-ketotic hyperglycemia, along with non-ketotic hyperosmolar coma and non-ketotic hyperglycemic hemichorea. Epidemiology Seizures in the context of non-ketotic hyperglycemia are most frequently reported in middl...

Murray Valley encephalitis

Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE), also known as Australian encephalitis, is one of many viral encephalitides and Flavivirus encephalitides, resulting from infection with the Murray Valley encephalitis virus. Clinical presentation Most patients have non-specific viral prodromal symptoms for app...

Eastern equine encephalitis

Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) is one of many viral encephalitides and results from infection with the eastern equine encephalitis virus. Clinical presentation Most patients have non-specific viral prodromal symptoms for approximately one week, including fevers, headache, nausea and vomitin...

Hematomyelia

Hematomyelia refers to the presence of intramedullary hemorrhage or hematoma within the spinal cord. This is distinct from extramedullary hemorrhage such as that seen in epidural hematoma. Pathology Although hematomyelia can occur in the setting of trauma, the term is generally used to signify...

Intracranial mass effect (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Intracranial mass effect describes what happens around a tumor in the brain. It is important to make the distinction between an abnormality that causes mass effect and compresses adjacent structures, and one that does not. ...

Cerebral edema (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Cerebral edema describes the collection of additional fluid within the white matter of the brain. It is the brain's response to an insult and may take one of two broad forms: vasogenic (white matter) and cytotoxic (grey and...

Brain mass lesion (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Brain mass lesions are a broad collection of pathological processes that result in changes on brain imaging (usually CT or MRI). They are a very disparate group of conditions ranging from infection (abscess) to brain tumors...

Variably protease-sensitive prionopathy

Variably protease-sensitive prionopathy (VPSPr) is a very rare type of sporadic human prion disease that was first described in 2008. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation is varied, but most patients demonstrate a combination of: progressive neuropsychiatric features: dementia and psyc...

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