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Levator ani muscle

The levator ani muscle, also known as the muscular pelvic diaphragm, is the musculotendinous sheet that forms the majority of the pelvic floor, supports the pelvic viscera, and aids in urinary and fecal evacuation as well as maintaining continence. Gross anatomy The levator ani has three main ...

Mullerianosis

Mullerianosis is a rare type of choristoma, in which normal Mullerian-derived structures (endometrium, endosalpinx, and endocervix) are ectopically located in another organ (e.g. the bladder) through a developmental anomaly. Mullerianosis differs from endometriosis in that at least two types of ...

Right iliac fossa mass (differential)

Right iliac fossa mass is a common clinical presentation and has a range of differentials that need to be excluded. Radiology plays an important role in this differentiation. Differential diagnosis appendicular mass appendicular abscess appendicular mucocele appendicular neoplasms ileoceca...

Endometrial microcalcifications

Endometrial microcalcifications can arise from a vast range pathologies but are usually of benign in etiology. They can also occur in the endocervical region (see - endocervical microcalcifications 1) Epidemiology They have an increased incidence with older age, postmenopausal state, atrophic ...

Vascular Ehlers Danlos syndrome

Vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) or type IV Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS 4) is the most malignant form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. This form is often accompanied by neurovascular complications secondary to vessel dissections and/or aneurysms. Epidemiology Vascular EDS represents about 4% of...

Ring of fire sign (adnexa)

The ring of fire sign, also known as ring of vascularity, signifies a hypervascular lesion with peripheral vascularity on color or pulsed Doppler examination of the adnexa due to low impedance high diastolic flow 1. This sign can be seen in: corpus luteum cyst (more commonly) ectopic pregnancy

Adenomatous endometrial hyperplasia

Adenomatous endometrial hyperplasia is a type of endometrial hyperplasia. Epidemiology The peak incidence is around 40-50 years of age. Pathology Both endogenous and exogenous estrogen exposure are considered important factors in its etiology 1.

Antral follicle count

Antral follicle count (AFC) or basal antral follicle count is a test performed to check a female individual's ovarian reserve. Principle A female is born with a lifetime supply of eggs and as she enters puberty these eggs develop. During and after puberty these follicles develop and are relea...

Body packing

Body packing refers to the internal concealment of drugs within the gastrointestinal tract or other orifices. People who do this may be called body packers, (drug) mules, stuffers, couriers or swallowers. Drugs may be concealed within condoms, foil, latex or cellophane. Epidemiology There is ...

Follicular monitoring

Follicular monitoring or follicular study is a vital component of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) assessment and timing. It basically employs a simple technique for assessing ovarian follicles at regular intervals and documenting the pathway to ovulation. Physiology Journey to ovulation begins d...

Uterine smooth muscle tumors of uncertain malignant potential

Uterine smooth muscle tumors of uncertain malignant potential (STUMP) is a recently defined entity by the World Health Organization for a heterogeneous group of uterine smooth muscle tumors that cannot be histologically diagnosed as unequivocally benign or malignant 1. See also WHO classificat...

Mushroom cap sign (endometriosis)

The mushroom cap sign is one of the important signs of deep rectosigmoid endometriosis seen on T2 weighted MRI sequence. It indicates the submucosal involvement in the rectosigmoid colon. The hypertrophic muscularis propria appears as heterogeneous low signal intensity surrounded by the high sig...

Ureterovaginal fistula

Ureterovaginal fistulae refer to abnormal communications between the lumina of the ureter(s) and the vagina. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with urinary incontinence through the vagina which may be accompanied by fever and chills 1. Symptoms usually begin within 2-4 weeks foll...

Gigantomastia

Gigantomastia (also known as macromastia or mammomegaly) is the term employed when there is massive breast enlargement. It is often associated with pregnancy. It may be rarely unilateral. Gigantomastia is a very common condition characterized by proliferation of either breast fatty tissue or gl...

Thoracic endometriosis

Thoracic endometriosis is an uncommon location for endometriosis and the main cause of catamenial pneumothorax. Epidemiology Most often occurs in the third and fourth decades of life 3. Clinical presentation Symptoms may include: catamenial pleuritic chest pain catamenial hemoptysis: when...

Myometrial cysts

Myometrial cysts are cysts seen in the myometrium and these can be differentiated appropriately based on location and sonological or Doppler features. Pathology Etiology They can arise from variable etiology and include: adenomyosis: these cysts are most often seen in the endomyometrial junc...

Ovarian vein syndrome

Ovarian vein syndrome is a relatively rare condition where a dilated ovarian vein (ovarian venous varix) causes notching, dilatation, or obstruction of the ureter. This is usually secondary to varicosities of the ovarian vein or ovarian vein thrombosis and occurs at the point where the ovarian v...

Heterogeneous myometrial echotexture

A heterogeneous myometrial echotexture on ultrasound is usually a non-specific finding, although it has been described with uterine adenomyosis.

Cogwheel sign

The cogwheel sign refers to the pelvic imaging appearance of dilated loops of fallopian tube seen in cross-section. It represents infolding projections (sometimes looking like nodules) into the fallopian tube lumen which are likened to that of a cogwheel. The sign is typically described on ultra...

Retroverted uterus

A retroverted uterus is a normal variation of female pelvic anatomy in which the body of the uterus is tilted backwards (usually leans forward, i.e. anteverted) on itself to match the isthmus of the neck and lower uterine segment. There are variable grades of uterine retroversion. Epidemiology ...

Polycystic ovarian syndrome in the exam

Getting a film with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) in a subfertile patient is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with a normal size. There is diffuse thickening of the endometri...

Placental abruption in the exam

Getting a film with placental abruption (premature separation of placenta from uterus) in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound show a single live fetus with gestational age of 27 weeks. The cervix i...

Pelvic pain in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with pelvic pain in the exam. Most examinations are performed using ultrasound. Always say that you would further assess the uterus with 3D ultrasound. You may also say that in my department we would perform a sonohysterogram. Only...

Infertility in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with subfertility in the exam. Ultrasound is the initial examination of choice. Always say that you would further assess the uterus with 3D ultrasound. You may also say that in my department we would perform a sonohysterogram or HS...

Submucosal leiomyoma in the exam

Getting a film with submucosal fibroid in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound scans show an anteverted uterus with endometrium that is 7 mm wide and has a trilaminar appearance indicative of the pe...

Endometrial polyp in the exam

Getting a film with endometrial polyp in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound images in a lady with post-menopausal bleeding show an anteverted uterus with focal increased endometrial thickness to 1...

Perigestational hemorrhage in the exam

Getting a film with pregestational hemorrhage in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal (TV) pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is 20 mm in TV study with a single, li...

Per vaginal bleeding in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with per vaginal (PV) bleeding in the exam. Premenopausal embedded IUCD lost IUCD submucosal fibroid Pregnancy-related perigestational hemorrhage intrauterine fetal demise ectopic pregnancy ruptured ectopic cervical ectopi...

Gynecological ultrasound set-pieces

The clinical history will nearly always lead to a short differential or the answer. Show off to the examiner that you have a structured approach to reporting and managing the patient. Structured approach uterus: size, version and shape (normal or variant which you should elaborate on and say w...

Ovarian lesions with T2 hypointensity

A hypointense ovarian lesion on T2 weighted MRI is usually a sign of benignity. The low signal is considered to be due to fibrosis and blood products 1. Lesions that can give this appearance include 1: endometrioma Brenner tumor ovarian fibroma ovarian fibrothecoma ovarian cystadenofibrom...

Broad ligament contents (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for the contents of the broad ligament is: BROAD Mnemonic B: bundle (ovarian neurovascular bundle) R: round ligament O: ovarian ligament A: artifacts (vestigial structures) D: duct (oviduct)

Pelvic abscess

A pelvic abscess refers to a walled-off collection of pus in the pelvis. Pathology Etiology Some of the causes include: pelvic inflammatory disease (tubo-ovarian abscess) iatrogenic e.g. post-surgical inflammatory bowel disease pelvic actinomycosis infection diverticulitis Clinical pre...

Ultrasound guided percutaneous drainage

Ultrasound guided percutaneous drainage is one form of image guided procedure, allowing minimally invasive treatment of collections that are accessible by ultrasound study. It has several advantages and disadvantages over CT, which include: Advantages is a dynamic study, allowing greater prec...

Colovaginal fistula

Colovaginal fistula is one form of genitourinary fistula. It is also sometimes classed under a type of gastro-intestinal fistula. Pathology It refers to a communication between the colon (typically the rectum or sigmoid colon) with the vagina. At times, specific terms are used dependent on th...

Pelvic lipomatosis

Pelvic lipomatosis or pelvic fibrolipomatosis represents excessive deposition of fat in the pelvis due to overgrowth of adipose cells leading to compression of pelvic organs. Epidemiology The condition usually presents in patients 20-50 years of age. The condition is predominantly (~66% of cas...

Vesicovaginal fistula

Vesicovaginal fistulas are abnormal fistulous connections between the urinary bladder and vagina, resulting in an involuntary discharge of urine through the vagina. Epidemiology The overall incidence of vesicovaginal fistula is unknown but was reported to be 2.11 per 100 births in Nigeria 1. ...

Metastases to the ovary

Metastases to the ovary are relatively common with a documented incidence of 5-30% of all malignant ovarian masses. These may be incorrectly grouped under Krukenberg tumors, which are signet cell containing tumors that form only 30-40% of all ovarian metastases. Clinical presentation There ...

Dot dash pattern (ovarian dermoid cyst)

The dot-dash pattern (dermoid mesh) is one of the characteristic sonographic appearances of an ovarian dermoid cyst. It refers to the short and long echogenic lines which are often seen within a dermoid cyst and are due to the presence of hair.

Tip of the iceberg sign (ovarian dermoid cyst)

Tip of the iceberg sign refers to one of the characteristic appearances of an ovarian dermoid cyst. If there are echogenic cyst contents of sebum and hair, they cause marked posterior acoustic attenuation so that only the superficial part of the cyst is seen. Just like an iceberg, you may only b...

Ovarian carcinoid tumors

Ovarian carcinoid tumors are very rare sub type of ovarian tumor. They are usually classified under ovarian germ cell tumors (monodermal teratoma 5). The term carcinoid tumor of the ovary can be used to described primary ovarian carcinoid tumors or metastatic carcinoid tumors to the ovary. The f...

Soft tissue sarcoma

Soft tissue sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin (sarcoma) that originate from the soft tissues rather than bone. They are classified on the basis of tissue seen on histology. The more common sarcomas in the adult and pediatric populations are listed below...

Epithelial ovarian tumors

Ovarian epithelial tumors account for the majority of all ovarian tumors (60-70%) and their malignant forms represent >90% of ovarian cancers 1. They can range from being benign to highly malignant. Epidemiology There is a difference in frequency of ovarian tumor subtypes depending on menopaus...

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the endometrium

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the endometrium a is rare histological subtype of endometrial cancer. It is considered a high grade carcinoma, carries a poor prognosis and is often under-recognized 1. Epidemiology It is thought to represent approximately 1-9% of endometrial cancers 1,6. Patholo...

Adenosquamous carcinoma of endometrium (historical)

Adenosquamous carcinoma of the endometrium is term formerly used to describe a rare histological subtype of endometrial cancer that contains both malignant glandular and malignant squamous components. As of the 5th edition (2020) of the WHO classification of tumors of the uterine corpus, the su...

Cystic degeneration of a leiomyoma

Cystic degeneration is an uncommon type of degeneration that a uterine leiomyoma (fibroid) can undergo. Epidemiology This type of degeneration is thought to represent ~4% of all types of uterine leiomyoma degeneration. Pathology When the leiomyoma increases in size, the vascular supply to i...

Adenosquamous carcinoma (cervix)

Adenosquamous cell carcinoma (ASC) of the cervix is a rare histological subtype of cervical carcinoma. Pathology It has components of both cervical adenocarcinoma and cervical squamous cell carcinoma. Prognosis An adenosquamous histology appears to be an independent predictor of poor outcome...

Squamo-columnar junction of cervix

The squamo-columnar junction (SCJ) of the cervix refers to a transitional area between squamous epithelium of the vagina and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix. This shifts in location through age from being more external to internal. Carcinoma of the cervix develops almost exclusively wi...

Papillary serous carcinoma of the cervix

A papillary serous carcinoma of the cervix (PSCC) is an uncommon histological type of cervical cancer. It is considered a sub type of adenocarcinoma of the cervix. Epidemiology Accodring to some studies, there was a bimodal age distribution, with one peak occurring before the age of 40 years ...

WHO histological classification of tumors of the uterine cervix

The WHO histological classification is a detailed classification of tumors of the uterine cervix. epithelial tumors squamous tumors and precursors squamous cell carcinoma, not otherwise specified - 8070/3 keratinizing - 8071/3 non-keratinizing - 8072/3 basaloid - 8083/3 verrucous - 8051/3...

Mucinous carcinoma of the cervix

Mucinous carcinoma of the cervix is an uncommon histological subtype of cervical cancer. It falls under the group of adenocarcinoma of the cervix. Radiographic features MRI As a general rule any mucin-producing tumor will produce very high T2 signal 1. An enhancing lesion, irregular margin, ...

Mesonephric carcinoma of the cervix

Mesonephric carcinoma of the cervix is an extremely rare histological sub type of cervical cancer. It falls under the sub group of adenocarcinoma of the cervix. This is a slightly confusing entitiy since some authors have used this term as synonymous with clear cell carcinoma of the cervix 6. ...

Endometrioid carcinoma of the cervix

Endometrioid carcinoma of the cervix is a rare histological subtype of cervical cancer. It falls under the sub group of adenocarcinoma of the cervix. Epidemiology It is thought to account for approximately 7% of cervical adenocarcinomas 2-3. The incidence is thought to have increased through ...

Metastases to the uterine cervix

Metastases to the uterine cervix is an extremely uncommon with near to nothing publications in radiological literature at the time of writing. Generally, invasion of the uterine cervix (i.e. from vaginal and primary uterine malignancies) are excluded in its definition. There have been occasional...

Small cell carcinoma of the cervix

Small cell carcinoma of the cervix is a rare histological subtype of carcinoma of the cervix. Epidemiology Small cell carcinoma is thought to account for ~0.5-6% of all uterine cervical cancers 3. Pathology It is a type of neuroendocrine tumor and is similar to pulmonary small cell carcino...

Adenocarcinoma of the cervix

Adenocarcinoma of the cervix is a histological subtype of carcinoma of the cervix. Epidemiology Cervical adenocarcinoma is less common than squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) of the cervix, accounting for ~12.5% of all cervical cancer. Their proportionate prevalence is thought to be increasing an...

Pelvic cervical carcinoma protocol (MRI)

A dedicated pelvic MRI protocol is very useful for imaging assessment of cervical carcinoma. Although the FIGO is a clinical staging, the 2009 revised FIGO staging encourages the use of MRI to complement clinical staging. Preparation Imaging is optimally performed after three hours of fasting...

Trachelectomy

Trachelectomy, also known as a cervicectomy, refers to surgical resection of the uterine cervix. It may be considered as a fertility-sparing treatment for low-stage cervical cancer. Although radical hysterectomy is routine for treatment of endometrial and more advanced cervical cancer, uterine-...

Clear cell carcinoma of the cervix

Clear cell carcinoma of the cervix (CCCC) is a rare adenocarcinoma subtype of cervical cancer. Epidemiology Due to association with diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure in some patients, this subtype may have a younger age at presentation than other histological subtypes. This subtype can sometim...

Myxoid uterine leiomyoma

Myxoid uterine leiomyomas are a relatively rare pathological subtype of uterine leiomyomas. Terminology They are not to be confused with myxoid degeneration of a uterine leiomyoma which is a different entity. Pathology Myxoid leiomyomas contain abundant myxoid material between smooth muscle ...

Myxoid degeneration of a leiomyoma

Myxoid degeneration of leiomyoma is one of the rarer types of degeneration that can occur in a uterine leiomyoma. This term is related but not identical to the term myxoid uterine leiomyoma. Epidemiology While this type of degeneration is generally considered rare, the highest prevalence for t...

Endometrial carcinoma protocol (MRI)

A dedicated MRI protocol is crucial for accurate MRI evaluation of endometrial carcinomas. The endometrial carcinoma protocol is optimally performed after 3 hours of fasting to reduce bowel peristalsis and following administration of an antiperistaltic agent unless contraindicated. Supine posi...

Catamenial pneumothorax

Catamenial pneumothorax is a rare type of pneumothorax and is characterized by the recurrent accumulation of air in the thoracic space related to menstruation. Epidemiology It may represent up to one-third of women with spontaneous pneumothoraces 1. Patient history may or may not be positive f...

Goodman syndrome

Goodman syndrome is a type of acrocephalopolysyndactyly (often considered type IV). It is an extremely rare genetic disorder characterized by marked malformations of the head and face, abnormalities of the hands and feet, and congenital heart disease. The syndrome is inherited as an autosomal re...

Serous carcinoma of the endometrium

Serous carcinoma of the endometrium is an uncommon histological subtype of endometrial carcinoma accounting for only 5-10% of all such tumors 2. It is has a clinically aggressive form with early extension of the tumor via fallopian tubes into the peritoneum and peritoneal seeding. This accounts ...

Clear cell carcinoma of the endometrium

Clear cell carcinoma (CCC) of the endometrium is an uncommon histological subtype of endometrial cancer, only accounting for 1-5.5% of all endometrial carcinomas. It is often associated with an aggressive clinical behavior and poorer outcome 4,5. Only few case reports have described MRI findings...

Junctional zone

Junctional zone is a region representing the inner myometrium and is a very important imaging feature in pelvic MR imaging for interpretation of various pathologies. In its intact state, it is usually visualized on MRI as a low T2 signal layer beneath the endometrium. At times, it can also be se...

Uterine lymphoma

Uterine lymphoma refers to involvement of the uterus with lymphoma. Some authors also place lymphoma of the uterine cervix under this group. Epidemiology It is rare condition with initial uterine involvement occurring in only 1% of patients with lymphoma 3. However, uterine involvement is more...

Extra-uterine pelvic leiomyoma

Extra-uterine pelvic leiomyomas are much rarer than the typical uterine leiomyomas. Entities that are described in this group include cervical leiomyoma: sometimes classified as part of uterine leiomyomas vaginal leiomyoma: extremely rare benign metastasizing leiomyoma in the pelvis dissemi...

Hyaline degeneration of a leiomyoma

Hyaline degeneration is the most common form of degeneration that can occur in a uterine leiomyoma. Epidemiology It is thought to occur in up to 60% of uterine leiomyomas 3. Pathology As with many other types of degeneration, it happens when fibroids outgrow their blood supply 4. Hyaline de...

Red degeneration of a leiomyoma

Red degeneration, also known as carneous degeneration, is one of four main types of degeneration that can involve a uterine leiomyoma. While it is an uncommon type of degeneration, it is thought to be the most common form of degeneration of a leiomyoma during pregnancy 3. Clinical presentation ...

Sampson syndrome

Sampson syndrome refers to a type of superficial endometriosis, where multiple superficial plaques may be seen scattered in the peritoneum and pelvic ligaments. Clinical presentation The patient may present with non-specific abdominal pain. Radiographic features At laparoscopy, they are typi...

SHORT syndrome

SHORT syndrome refers to an acronym which primarily comprises of the following features: S: short stature H: hyperextensibility of joints and/or inguinal hernia O: ocular depression R: Rieger anomaly T: teething delay In addition to these there can be numerous associated minor features whi...

Uterine artery embolization: MRI assessment

Uterine artery embolization (UAE) is used as an alternative to hysterectomy in selected patients and MRI assessment is key in allowing not only pre-procedure assessment but also assessing post-procedural outcome. For a general discussion of the underlying condition refer to the article on ute...

Parturition-induced pelvic instability

Parturition-induced pelvic instability is a rare condition seen in women following vaginal delivery. Epidemiology The incidence of symphyseal rupture after vaginal delivery ranges from one in 600 to one in 30,000 deliveries 1. Predisposing factors include multiparity, complicated delivery, ...

Robinow syndrome

Robinow syndrome is a rare heterogeneous genetic disorder with at least two distinct forms. Clinical spectrum The syndrome can affect several systems, including: mesomelic limb shortening: mesomelia hemivertebrae characteristic facies anomalies fetal facies hypertelorism 3 frontal bossin...

Ovarian cystadenoma

Ovarian cystadenoma is a broad term given to a certain types of ovarian epithelial tumors. This can include ovarian serous cystadenoma ovarian borderline serous cystadenoma ovarian mucinous cystadenoma ovarian borderline mucinous cystadenoma ovarian cystadenofibroma See also ...

Dominant ovarian follicle

A dominant ovarian follicle refers to the follicle that enlarges to release an ovum during a menstural cycle. Usually approximately 10 Graafian follicles begin to mature where one becomes a dominant follicle and the rest become atretic ovarian follicles. After release of the ovum the remainder o...

Sonographic values in obstetrics and gynecology

Obstetric and gynecological ultrasound is rampant with numerous cut-off values. Some of these get revised over the years. The following list is a useful aid to refer to and revise. 1 mm rate of increase of a mean sac diameter per day in early pregnancy 2 mm generally accepted value for a thi...

Frontal bossing

Frontal bossing is a calvarial radiographic feature where the front of the skull appears protruding anteriorly. It is best appreciated on a sagittal or lateral image. Pathology This feature can be seen in many conditions (in alphabetical order): 18q syndrome acromegaly achondroplasia ß-tha...

Large loop excision of the transformation zone

Large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) is a gynecological procedure. It is currently one of the most commonly used approaches to treat high grade cervical dysplasia - cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia is the most common as well as the most benign form of endometrial hyperplasia. Radiographic features Ultrasound Typically shows endometrial thickening with associated cysts. Differential diagnosis For imaging appearances consider: prolonged proliferative phas...

Periurethral cystic lesions

There are several periurethral cystic lesions. These include: female genitourinary tract: vaginal cysts Mullerian cyst Gartner duct cyst epidermal inclusion cyst of the vagina Skene duct cyst Bartholin gland cyst endometrial cyst of perineal-vulval-vaginal region male genitourinary trac...

Dysgerminoma

A dysgerminoma refers to a class of tumor with germ cell origin. This can refer to: CNS dysgerminoma ovarian dysgerminoma See also germ cell tumors

Mixed gonadal dysgenesis

Mixed gonadal dysgenesis (MGD) is a type of gonadal dysgenesis characterized by gonadal asymmetry, and/or sex chromosomal mosaicism, as well as retained Müllerian ducts. Pathology Depending on the chromosomal composition, patients may have testes and/or streak gonads. Genetics affected indiv...

Midfacial hypoplasia

Midfacial hypoplasia is a type of congenital facial anomaly. Pathology Midfacial hypoplasia can be a feature of a number of congenital syndromic anomalies: Antley-Bixler syndrome chromosome 1p36 deletion syndrome 2 chromosome 18q deletion syndrome Crouzon syndrome fetal alcohol syndrome ...

Short maxillary length

A short maxillary length can result from many congenital and acquired causes. If seen in an antenatal ultrasound scan, it is often considered to have a high association with trisomy 21 1. Congenital conditions Many conditions that can cause midfacial hypoplasia will result in a short maxillar...

Postpartum hemorrhage

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) refers to uterine bleeding after delivery and remains one of the major worldwide causes of maternal mortality. Pathology Classification A postpartum hemorrhage can be board classified as primary or secondary. Primary postpartum hemorrhage This is the most common ...

Hypertensive states in pregnancy

There are several hypertensive states that can manifest in pregnancy. They include: gestational hypertension - pregnancy induced hypertension (PIH) pre eclampsia eclampsia Epidemiology They may be commoner in young primigravid as well as older multiparous women. Pathology Associations a...

Tuberculosis (fallopian tube)

Tuberculosis of the fallopian tube is one of the most common sites of tuberculous pelvic inflammatory disease. Clinical presentation Many patients may be asymptomatic, with the disease being discovered during the workup for infertility. Signs and symptoms are often vague and can include acut...

Isthmic ectopic pregnancy

An isthmic ectopic pregnancy is a subtype of tubal ectopic pregnancy an accounts for ~12% of such cases. According to one study, the rate of tubal wall disruption was higher than with an ampullary ectopic pregnancy, suggesting that in an isthmic ectopic pregnancy, the trophoblast penetrates the ...

Fetal transverse cerebellar diameter

In obstetric imaging, the fetal transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD) is often measured as an additional fetal biometric parameter. It is measured as the maximal diameter between the cerebellar hemispheres on an axial scan. The value of the transverse cerebellar diameter in mm's is considered rou...

Placental septal cyst

Placental septal cysts are placental cysts typically located in the mid-placenta. It forms between the cotyledons of the placenta. The cysts contain gelatinous material and are usually 5-10 mm in diameter. They may be present in 10-20% of placentas from full-term uncomplicated pregnancies.

Placental infarction

Placental infarction refers to a localized area of ischemic villous necrosis. It is a significant cause of placental insufficiency. Epidemiology A localized infarction can occur in up to ~25% of all placental pathologies and approximately 5-20% of all gestations (on average 12.5%) 6. Pathol...

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