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Fat containing liver lesions

Fat containing liver lesions represent a variety of benign and malignant liver lesions may contain macroscopic and/or intracytoplasmic fat in sufficient quantities enabling characterization on imaging studies. Most fat-containing liver lesions (80%) in patients with cirrhosis are malignant, most...

Klatskin tumor

Klatskin tumor is a term that was traditionally given to a hilar (perihilar) cholangiocarcinoma, occurring at the bifurcation of the common hepatic duct. Typically, these tumors are small, poorly differentiated, exhibit aggressive biologic behavior, and tend to obstruct the intrahepatic bile duc...

Hepatic lymphoma

Hepatic lymphoma is a term given to any form of hepatic involvement with lymphoma. This can be broadly divided into: secondary hepatic involvement with lymphoma: most common by far, many tend to be non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) 1 primary hepatic lymphoma: extremely rare Pathology Risk factors f...

Hyperechoic liver lesions

A hyperechoic liver lesion on ultrasound can arise from a number of entities, both benign and malignant. A benign hepatic hemangioma is the most common entity encountered, but in patients with atypical findings or risk for malignancy, other entities must be considered. Benign hepatic hemangiom...

Malignant liver tumors (pediatric)

Pediatric malignant liver tumors are rare, some of which occur only in children but that are similar to those that occur in adults. Epidemiology Malignant liver tumors account for ~1% of pediatric malignancies 2. Pathology Broadly, any malignant liver mass can be defined as a metastasis or p...

Pediatric benign liver tumors

Pediatric benign liver tumors are a relatively rare, but important group of conditions. Importantly, the commonest cause of a benign liver tumor is specific to the pediatric population. The list in descending order of frequency is: infantile hepatic hemangioma (previously hemangioendothelioma) ...

Liver lesions (pediatric)

Pediatric liver lesions are a heterogeneous group that includes infiltrative lesions and those that demonstrate mass-effect. Moreover, they may be solitary or multiple, benign or malignant: benign liver tumors malignant liver tumors Epidemiology There are differing frequencies of both benign...

Liver lesions

Liver lesions represent a heterogeneous group of pathology ranging from solitary benign lesions to multiple metastases from a variety of primary tumors. Liver lesions may be infiltrative or have mass-effect, be solitary or multiple, benign or malignant. Assessment of liver lesions takes into c...

Gallbladder perforation

Gallbladder perforations are a serious complication of acute cholecystitis and represent an advanced stage of the disease. They tend to occur in an elderly and/or comorbid demographic and carry higher rates of morbidity and mortality. Clinical presentation Symptoms and clinical signs are varia...

Mickey Mouse sign (disambiguation)

In medical imaging, a Mickey Mouse sign or appearance has been given to imaging features that mimic Mickey Mouse when viewed from the front. It has been described in the following: anencephaly 2 progressive supranuclear palsy 1 synonymously with a finger in glove sign the flared shape of the...

Porta hepatis

The porta hepatis, also known as the transverse hepatic fissure, is a deep fissure in the inferior surface of the liver through which all the neurovascular structures (except hepatic veins) and also hepatic ducts enter or leave the liver 1. It runs in the hepatoduodenal ligament and contains: c...

Periportal halo (CT/US)

Periportal halo or periportal collar sign refers to a zone of low attenuation seen around the intrahepatic portal veins on contrast-enhanced CT or hypoechogenicity on liver ultrasound. It likely represents periportal edema, which is often used as a synonymous term. Periportal haloes may occur ar...

Solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas

Solid pseudopapillary tumors of the pancreas are rare and usually benign pancreatic cystic neoplasms that are most commonly seen in young females. Terminology The tumor has been referred to with multiple different names, including: solid pseudopapillary tumor (SPT) of the pancreas solid ps...

Hepatic hemosiderosis

Hepatic hemosiderosis, or hepatic iron overload, refers to the deposition of hemosiderin in the liver. Pathology Hepatic iron overload can be in the form of 7: diffuse heterogeneous segmental focal hypersiderosis intralesional siderosis periportal siderosis In the absence of genetic he...

Child-Pugh score

The Child-Pugh score is a scoring system to measure the severity of chronic liver disease inclusive of cirrhosis. The intention is to provide a system with which clinicians can objectively communicate about liver function. The score is composed from several categories: total bilirubin, μmol/L ...

Percutaneous cholecystostomy

Percutaneous cholecystostomy is the image-guided placement of a drainage catheter into the gallbladder lumen. This minimally invasive procedure can aid in patient stabilization in order to enable a more measured surgical approach with time for therapeutic planning. A 2018 study demonstrated no ...

Wheel within a wheel sign (hepatic candidiasis)

The wheel within a wheel sign describes one of several possible ultrasound findings of hepatic candidiasis. The finding consists of a round lesion with three layers corresponding to the following histopathological changes 2: peripheral hypoechoic area (fibrosis) middle hyperechoic area (inflam...

Medical devices in the abdomen and pelvis

Medical devices in the abdomen and pelvis are important to be recognized, just like medical devices of the chest. We often ignore these devices, considering them to be incidental and non-pathological, however it is essential to be aware of potential complications. Gastrointestinal devices tube...

Hepatic veins

Three large intrahepatic veins drain the liver parenchyma, into the inferior vena cava (IVC), and are named the right hepatic vein, middle hepatic vein and left hepatic vein. The veins are important landmarks, running in between and defining the segments of the liver. There are separate smaller ...

Pylephlebitis

Pylephlebitis, also known as ascending septic thrombophlebitis, is a thrombotic occlusion of the portal vein or its branches secondary to infection in regions that drain to the portal venous system. Clinical Presentation Clinical presentation is often vague. Patients may initially present with...

Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis

Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis (XGC) is an uncommon inflammatory disease of the gallbladder that may be difficult to differentiate from malignancy, both on imaging and pathologically. It is characterized by the presence of multiple intramural nodules. Epidemiology Xanthogranulomatous cholec...

Emphysematous cholecystitis

Emphysematous cholecystitis is a rare form of acute cholecystitis where gallbladder wall necrosis causes gas formation in the lumen or wall. It is a surgical emergency, due to the high mortality from gallbladder gangrene and perforation. Epidemiology Men are affected twice as commonly as women...

Non-visualization of the fetal gallbladder

Non-visualization of the fetal gallbladder is often a transient finding and in most cases, the gallbladder can be eventually detected. However non-visualization can be rarely associated with certain pathological conditions. Associations cystic fibrosis aneuploidy agenesis of the gallbladder ...

Fetal hepatomegaly

Fetal hepatomegaly (or more simply an enlarged fetal liver) can occur in number of situations. It can occur with or without fetal splenomegaly. Pathology Etiology in utero infections: the commonest cause fetal cytomegalovirus infection (CMV) 3 fetal parvovirus B19 infection in utero syph...

Milk of calcium (disambiguation)

The term milk of calcium (MOC) is given to dependent, sedimented calcification within a cystic structure or hollow organ. This sort of colloidal calcium suspension layering can occur in various regions: renal: milk of calcium in renal cyst (most common) ureter: milk of calcium in the ureter 7 ...

Stauffer syndrome

Stauffer syndrome is paraneoplastic nephrogenic hepatomegaly. It most commonly occurs in the setting of renal cell carcinoma, and is the enlargement of the liver without hepatic metastases. It is a cause of cholestasis and cholestatic jaundice. History and etymology It is named after Maurice ...

Atresia

Atresia (plural: atresias) refers to a situation where there is absence, underdevelopment or abnormal closure, of a normal anatomical tubular structure or opening. Contrast this with agenesis which refers to the complete absence of any anatomical structure including its primordial precursors. ...

Pancreatic lymphoma

Pancreatic lymphoma is most commonly a B-cell subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphoma Epidemiology Pancreatic lymphoma is typically seen in middle-aged patients with a mean age of around 55 years old and is more common in immunocompromised patients. Clinical presentation Symptoms are often non-speci...

CA-125

CA-125 is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein found on the surface of Müllerian and celomic epithelial-derived cell types and is the best known tumor marker for epithelial ovarian cancer 6. Importantly, it may also be elevated in several other conditions (see differential diagnosis section belo...

Pneumobilia vs portal venous gas (mnemonic)

Pneumobilia and portal venous gas are two causes of an intrahepatic branching gas pattern. The two have different causes and implications and need to be distinguished on imaging, and a simple mnemonic can help. Mnemonic A simple mnemonic for remembering the difference in appearance is: p...

Peritoneal hydatidosis

Peritoneal hydatidosis occurs secondary to seeding of echinococcosis to the peritoneum, usually secondary to rupture of hydatid disease of liver. Pathology Seeding involves the entire peritoneum and gives appearance of a multiloculated mass. Classification Peritoneal hydatidosis can be prim...

Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins are naturally-occurring mycotoxins that are produced by Aspergillus species, especially Aspergillus flavus. They are acutely toxic and carcinogenic. Acute exposure High-level aflatoxin exposure can result in acute aflatoxicosis with acute hepatic necrosis, leading to cirrhosis, and ...

Fetal intrahepatic calcification

Fetal intrahepatic calcification can be a relatively common finding. Calcifications in the liver can be single or multiple and in most cases in which isolated hepatic calcific deposits are detected, there is usually no underlying abnormality. The presence of isolated intrahepatic calcification ...

Caroli disease

Caroli disease and Caroli syndrome are congenital disorders comprising of multifocal cystic dilatation of segmental intrahepatic bile ducts. However, some series show that extrahepatic duct involvement may exist. They are also classified as a type V choledochal cyst, according to the Todani clas...

Glucagonoma

Glucagonomas are pancreatic endocrine tumors that secrete glucagon. Most lesions are malignant. Epidemiology They are very rare with an incidence of ~0.000005% or less than 1 case per 20 million. Equal incidence in middle-aged men and women. Accounts for 1% of all the neuroendocrine tumors a...

Gastrinoma

Gastrinomas are the second most common pancreatic endocrine tumor and the most common type in the setting of multiple endocrine neoplasia type I (MEN I). Epidemiology Most gastrinomas are sporadic, although some are seen in the setting of multiple endocrine neoplasia type I (MEN I). In general...

Whipple triad

Whipple triad is the clinical presentation of pancreatic insulinoma and consists of: fasting hypoglycemia (<50 mg/dL or <2.7 mmol/L) symptoms of hypoglycemia immediate relief of symptoms after the administration of intravenous glucose History and etymology The triad and also the Whipple pro...

Insulinoma

Insulinomas are the most common sporadic endocrine tumor of the pancreas. On imaging, they usually present as small well-defined hypervascular tumors that may be found anywhere in the pancreas. Epidemiology Account for 40% of syndromic pancreatic endocrine tumors. The overall incidence is of...

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNET), also known as endocrine tumors of the pancreas, arise from pancreatic ductal stem cells and include some distinct tumors that match the cell type of origin. Terminology Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors have commonly been referred to as "islet cell tumo...

Periportal hyperechogenicity

Periportal hyperechogenicity can result from many causes including: pneumobilia cholecystitis schistosomiasis of the portal region recurrent pyogenic cholangitis (oriental) inflammatory bowel disease: has been described to give "echo-rich" periportal cuffing 2

Periportal hypoechogenicity

Periportal hypoechogenicity can result from many causes: orthotopic liver transplant rejection congestive hepatopathy malignant lymphatic obstruction cholangitis viral hepatitis See also periportal hyperechogenicity periportal halo

Biliary cystadenoma

Biliary cystadenomas are uncommon benign cystic neoplasms of the liver. Epidemiology Biliary cystadenomas occur predominantly in middle-aged patients and are more common in women 1. Clinical presentation The clinical presentation of biliary cystadenomas is variable, depending on the size and...

Ectopic pancreatic tissue

Ectopic pancreatic tissue, also known as heterotopic pancreatic tissue, refers to the presence of pancreatic tissue in the submucosal, muscularis or subserosal layers of the luminal gastrointestinal tract outside the normal confines of the pancreas and lacking any anatomic or vascular connection...

Thorotrast

Thorotrast is a suspension of radioactive thorium dioxide first produced in Germany in 1928, used as a contrast agent until the 1950s. Its principal use was for cerebral angiography: 90% of the estimated 50,000-100,000 patients treated received it for this purpose. Umbrathor was another thorium ...

Retained gallstone

Retained gallstones, also called dropped or slipped gallstones, are common during a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, with a reported incidence of 0.1–20%, and occur when gallstones are inadvertently spilled into the peritoneal cavity. Clinical presentation Many cases of dropped gallstones will be...

Chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis represents the end result of a continuous, prolonged, inflammatory, and fibrosing process that affects the pancreas. This results in irreversible morphologic changes and permanent endocrine and exocrine pancreatic dysfunction. Epidemiology The most common cause of chronic ...

Anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction

An anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction, also known as pancreaticobiliary maljunction, describes the abnormal junction of the pancreatic duct and common bile duct that occurs outside the duodenal wall to form a long common channel (>15 mm) 5. Epidemiology The incidence varies from 1.5% to 3.2...

Ascites

Ascites (hydroperitoneum is a rare synonym) is defined as an abnormal amount of intraperitoneal fluid. Terminology Ascites (plural is same word) tends to be reserved for relatively sizable amounts of peritoneal fluid. The amount has not been defined formally, however it is noted that physiolog...

Paraduodenal pancreatitis

Paraduodenal pancreatitis is an uncommon type of focal chronic pancreatitis affecting the groove between the head of the pancreas, the duodenum and the common bile duct. Terminology The following entities with which it shares clinicopathological features are unified by this term and should no ...

Hemobilia

Hemobilia refers to the presence of blood in the biliary tree. Clinical presentation The classical clinical triad, only seen in ~50% of cases, consists of: melena (i.e. upper gastrointestinal bleeding) jaundice abdominal pain Pathology Etiology iatrogenic: surgical or percutaneous proced...

Focal hypodense hepatic lesions on non-enhanced CT (differential)

Focal hypodense hepatic lesions on a non-contrast CT scan can result from a number of pathological entities, including: neoplasms benign hepatic hemangioma adenoma biliary hamartoma: von Meyenberg complexes 2 malignant hepatoma/hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) hepatic lymphoma hepatic ha...

Clonorchiasis

Clonorchiasis is a trematodiasis caused by chronic infestation by Clonorchis sinensis and can lead to recurrent pyogenic cholangitis, biliary strictures and cholangiocarcinoma. Epidemiology Infection with Clonorchis sinensis occurs in endemic areas, mainly east China. Over 85 million people a...

Hepatic steatosis

Hepatic steatosis, also known as hepatosteatosis, refers to an increase of intracellular fat in the liver and is defined when ≥5% of the weight of the liver is intrahepatic fat 3. It is widely mischaracterized by both radiologists and sonographers as 'fatty infiltration' but the fat is in the h...

Acute fatty liver of pregnancy

Acute fatty liver of pregnancy (AFLP) is a rare pregnancy-associated condition that tends to manifest in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy or early postpartum period. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at around 1:7000-20,000 births. Clinical presentation Patients may present with nausea,...

Double duct sign

The double duct sign refers to the presence of simultaneous dilatation of the common bile and pancreatic ducts. Being an anatomical sign it can be seen on all modalities that can visualize the region, including: MRI, CT, ultrasound and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). In ge...

HELLP syndrome

HELLP syndrome is a pregnancy-related condition and is an abbreviation for: haemolysis elevated liver enzymes and low platelets It is considered a severe and life-threatening form of pre-eclampsia although it can occur without co-existing pre-eclampsia. Epidemiology The es...

Generalized increase in hepatic echogenicity

Causes of generalized increase in hepatic echogenicity include: diffuse fatty change cirrhosis: and/or coarsening chronic hepatitis 3: and/or coarsening diffuse infiltration or deposition malignant process granulomata tuberculosis brucellosis sarcoidosis glycogen storage disease hemo...

Generalized reduced hepatic echogenicity

Causes of generalized reduction of liver echogenicity on ultrasound include: acute hepatitis diffuse malignant infiltration See also generalized increase in liver echogenicity hepatic attenuation on CT

Sickle cell disease (abdominal manifestations)

Abdominal manifestations of sickle cell disease (SCD) are wide and can involve many organs. For a general discussion, please refer to sickle cell disease. Splenic splenomegaly may occur transiently with the sequestration syndrome, where rapid pooling of blood occurs in the spleen, resulting ...

Littoral cell angioma of the spleen

Littoral cell angioma of the spleen is a rare, benign primary vascular tumor of the spleen. Epidemiology Littoral cell angiomas may occur at any age and have no gender predilection. Associations Littoral cell angiomas have been diagnosed in association with various malignancies outside the s...

Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a pear-shaped musculomembranous sac located along the undersurface of the liver. It functions to accumulate and concentrate bile between meals. Gross anatomy Macroscopic The normal adult gallbladder measures from 7-10 cm in length and 3-4 cm in transverse diameter 6. The ga...

Porcelain gallbladder

Porcelain gallbladder refers to extensive calcium encrustation of the gallbladder wall. The term has been used to emphasize the blue discolouration and brittle consistency of the gallbladder wall at surgery but is often an incidental finding on multiple different imaging modalities. Clinical p...

Gallbladder carcinoma

Gallbladder carcinoma is a type of gallbladder cancer and specifically refers to primary epithelial malignancies arising from the gallbladder, in which the great majority (90%) are adenocarcinomas and the remainder are squamous cell carcinomas. They are more prevalent in elderly women and, in mo...

Vicarious contrast media excretion

Vicarious contrast media excretion (VCME) refers to the excretion of intravascularly-administered water-soluble iodinated contrast media in a way other than via normal renal excretion. More rarely it may occur following oral contrast medium administration 6. Epidemiology The most common vicari...

Tc-99m sulfur colloid

Technetium-99m sulfur colloid is one of the technetium radiopharmaceuticals. Characteristics photon energy: 140 keV physical half-life: 6 hours biological half-life: 2 to 3 minutes normal distribution: liver: 85% spleen: 10% bone marrow: 5% excretion: hepatic target organ: liver, splee...

Liver biopsy (transjugular)

Transjugular liver biopsy (TJLB) is an alternative to a percutaneous liver biopsy in patients with diffuse liver disease, coagulopathy and ascites. It is sometimes done in combination with a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPSS) or venography. Indications massive ascites ...

Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography

Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) is a radiographic technique employed in the visualization of the biliary tree and can be used as the first step in a number of percutaneous biliary interventions (e.g. percutaneous transhepatic biliary stent placement) Indications Purely diagnost...

Extramedullary hematopoiesis

Extramedullary hematopoiesis is a response to the failure of erythropoiesis in the bone marrow. This article aims to a general approach on the condition, for a dedicated discussion for a particularly involved organ, please refer to the specific articles on: extramedullary hematopoiesis in ...

Bulging duodenal papilla

Bulging duodenal papilla is a conical or cylindrical protuberance at the medial aspect of the descending or horizontal duodenum at the site of the sphincter of Oddi. It is a finding on small bowel follow-though (and endoscopy) and has a relatively long differential. On cross-sectional imaging, ...

Infantile hepatic hemangioma

Infantile hepatic hemangiomas (IHH) are liver lesions composed of large endothelial-lined vascular channels seen in fetuses and neonates. They are not to be confused with hepatic epithelioid hemangioendothelioma, which occurs in older patients. Terminology These benign tumors were previously r...

Rosary sign (gallbladder)

The rosary sign is a CT finding in adenomyomatosis of the gallbladder. It is formed by the enhanced proliferative mucosal epithelium, with the intramural diverticula surrounded by the unenhanced hypertrophied muscle coat of the gallbladder. The rosary sign is similar to the pearl necklace sign.

Primary biliary cholangitis

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic progressive cholestatic liver disease that is the cause of 1-2% of deaths from cirrhosis and constitutes the third most common indication for liver transplantation in adults. Terminology The name of this disease was changed from primary biliary ci...

Hepatopulmonary syndrome

Hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS) is a clinical syndrome defined by the presence of the following: liver disease dilation of pulmonary vasculature may involve pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary arteriovenous malformations, or pleural AVMs abnormalities in oxygenation elevation in the alveolar-ar...

Acute cholecystitis

Acute cholecystitis refers to the acute inflammation of the gallbladder. It is the primary complication of cholelithiasis and the most common cause of acute pain in the right upper quadrant (RUQ). Epidemiology Acute cholecystitis is a common cause of hospital admission and is responsible for a...

Todani classification of bile duct cysts

The Todani classification of bile duct cysts classically divides choledochal cysts into five groups. Classification Traditional classification Type I See: type I choledochal cyst account for 80-90% of all bile duct cysts characterized by fusiform dilation of the extrahepatic bile duct a s...

Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency

Alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) deficiency is a hereditary metabolic disorder and is the most common genetic cause of emphysema and metabolic liver disease in children. It results in the unopposed action of neutrophil elastase and subsequent severe basal panlobular emphysema and respiratory symptoms....

Sarcoidosis (abdominal manifestations)

Sarcoidosis is a systemic inflammatory disease of unknown origin characterized by the formation of non-caseating granulomas. Virtually any organ system may be involved. Although less common than pulmonary and mediastinal disease, abdominal sarcoidosis can mimic more common infectious or neoplast...

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis results from infection by the zoonotic Leptospira spp. The condition can have multiorgan manifestations. Commonly affected organs include: lung: pulmonary leptospirosis liver: hepatic leptospirosis central nervous system: CNS leptospirosis skeletal muscle: muscular leptospirosi...

Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor

Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors (IMT), also known as plasma cell granulomas, are rare neoplasms that have a diverse spectrum of biological behavior. Terminology These tumors were previously referred to as inflammatory pseudotumor. Epidemiology They can occur at any age and there is cu...

Mastocytosis

Mastocytosis is characterized by excessive accumulation of mast cells in one or more organs. According to the World Health Organizatiοn classification, three clinical entities fall under the mastocytosis umbrella: cutaneous mastocytosis, systemic mastocytosis (with or without cutaneous manifesta...

Primary myelofibrosis

Primary myelofibrosis is a myeloproliferative neoplasm in which there is the replacement of bone marrow with collagenous connective tissue and progressive fibrosis. It is characterized by: extramedullary hematopoiesis progressive splenomegaly anemia variable change in the number of granulocy...

Sickle cell disease

Sickle cell disease (SCD) (historically also known as drepanocytosis) is a hereditary (autosomal recessive) condition resulting in the formation of abnormal hemoglobin (a hemoglobinopathy), which manifests as multisystem ischemia and infarction, as well as hemolytic anemia. Hemoglobin SC (HbSC...

Technetium-99m agents

Technetium agents based on the technetium-99m (Tc-99m) radioisotope are frequently used agents in medical imaging. A radiopharmaceutical labeled with Tc-99m constitutes a co-ordination complex in which ligands bond to a central atom of Tc-99m by co-ordinate covalent bonds 4 . The radioactive te...

Pancreatic trauma injury grading

A number of pancreatic injury grading systems have been proposed for pancreatic trauma. Classifications American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) 5,7 The proximal pancreas is defined as the gland to the right of the superior mesenteric vein (SMV)-portal vein axis whereas the dista...

Focal gas collection in right upper quadrant (differential)

Focal gas collection in right upper quadrant on plain radiographs can occur from a number of pathologies. Things to consider are: enterobiliary fistula: common types include cholecystoduodenal fistula and cholecystocolic fistula. It may occur with: gallstone ileus (being most common) 3 perfor...

Comet tail artifact

The comet tail artifact is a grey scale ultrasound finding seen when small calcific / crystalline / highly reflective objects are interrogated and is believed to be a special form of reverberation artifact. It is similar to the color comet tail artifact and is seen in similar situations, althou...

Primary hyperoxaluria

Primary hyperoxaluria, also referred to as primary oxalosis, is a congenital autosomal recessive disease related to a liver enzyme deficiency leading to massive cortical nephrocalcinosis and renal failure. Please refer to secondary oxalosis for a discussion on the acquired form of hyperoxaluri...

Biloma

Bilomas refer to extrabiliary collections of bile. They can be either intra- or extrahepatic. Terminology There is a slight discrepancy in the reported literature regarding the use of the term "biloma". Many authors have used it exclusively to refer to intrahepatic bile collections or other b...

Splenic artery aneurysm

Splenic artery aneurysms are the most common visceral arterial aneurysm formation as well as the third most common abdominal aneurysm (after the aorta and iliac vessels). Aneurysms are usually saccular in configuration and they can either be in the form of a true aneurysm (much more common) or a...

Reticuloendothelial system

The reticuloendothelial system (RES) comprises a number of tissues: spleen bone marrow liver Kupffer cells

Scleroderma (hepatobiliary manifestations)

Hepatobiliary manifestations of scleroderma are only present symptomatically in a minority of patients. Around 2.5% of patients with scleroderma develop clinically significant primary biliary cholangitis, however, antibody studies suggest that subclinical disease may be present in as many as 15%...

Benign vs malignant features of gallbladder polyps

In most instances predicting benign versus malignant histology of a gallbladder polyp based purely on imaging features is not possible. However, a number of features are helpful in helping to decide the management of a gallbladder polyp. Benign features size polyps that are less than 5 mm in...

Benign tumors and tumor-like lesions of the gallbladder

The gallbladder and extrahepatic bile ducts play host to a surprisingly large number of benign tumors and tumor-like lesions which may be visible on imaging. In the gallbladder, most of them are detected incidentally, whereas in the bile ducts they are usually found in symptomatic patients (obst...

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