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Alagille syndrome

Alagille syndrome (also known as arteriohepatic dysplasia) is a congenital genetic multisystem disorder. Clinical presentation Infants typically present with symptoms relating to the liver where it is one of the most common causes of hereditary cholestasis. Genetics Alagille syndrome is inhe...

Hepatic arterial resistive index

The resistive index (RI) is the most common Doppler parameter used for hepatic arterial evaluation. The usual range in normal, as well as post-transplant individuals, is between 0.55 and 0.8. It is measured by: Resistive index (RI) = (peak systolic velocity - end-diastolic velocity)/peak systo...

Mucocele (general)

A mucocele simply refers to accumulation and expansion of a structure by mucus 1. It occurs in a variety of locations which are discussed separately: paranasal sinus mucocele lacrimal mucocele 3 mucocele of the mastoid (rare) 4 mucocele of the oral cavity e.g. ranula, mucous retention cysts...

Saber sign (pneumobilia)

The saber sign refers to a pattern of gas distribution seen in supine abdominal radiographs of patients with pneumobilia. A sword-shaped lucency is apparent in the right paraspinal region of the upper abdomen representing arching gas extending from the common bile duct into the left hepatic duc...

Bile sump syndrome

Bile sump syndrome refers to a complication following a side-to-side choledochoduodenostomy. Epidemiology This complication occurs in ~1% of patients following a side-to-side choledochoduodenostomy. Clinical presentation Recurrent abdominal pain, cholangitis, pancreatitis, or biliary obstr...

Diffuse gallbladder wall thickening (differential)

Diffuse thickening of the gallbladder wall can occur in a number of situations: cholecystitis acute cholecystitis chronic cholecystitis gallbladder empyema 7 xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis 11 acalculous cholecystitis 11 postprandial physiological state (pseudothickening) gallbladder ...

Multiple biliary hamartomas

Multiple biliary hamartomas (MBHs) are a rare cause of multiple benign hepatic lesions. The condition is also known as von Meyenburg complexes, multiple bile duct hamartomas or biliary microhamartomas. Multiple biliary hamartomas are asymptomatic and usually found incidentally, when it is import...

Transient hepatic attenuation differences

Transient hepatic attenuation differences (THAD) lesions refer to areas of parenchymal enhancement visible during the hepatic artery phase on helical CT. They are thought to be a physiological phenomenon caused by the dual hepatic blood supply. Occasionally, they may be associated with hepatic t...

Seurat spleen

Seurat spleen is an angiographic appearance seen following blunt trauma to the spleen. Multiple small punctate regions of intraparenchymal contrast extravasation lead to a spotted appearance. Pathology Several mechanisms are thought to to attribute to this appearance which include sinusoidal s...

Whole-body CT (protocol)

CT polytrauma/multitrauma, also called trauma CT, whole body CT (WBCT) or panscan, is an increasingly used investigation in patients with multiple injuries sustained after significant trauma. The majority of the evidence regarding whole-body CT is, understandably, retrospective. There is some e...

Bacillary angiomatosis

Bacillary angiomatosis is an infective complication in those with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) 3. Amongst other widespread multi-organ manifestations, the infection causes skin lesions which can be similar to those of Kaposi sarcoma. Pathology Characterized by a non-neoplastic...

Pancreatic lipomatosis

Pancreatic lipomatosis refers to fat accumulation in the pancreatic parenchyma. This finding is most often associated with obesity and aging. It tends to be the most common pathological condition involving the pancreas. The condition may occasionally simulate a mass-like lesion particularly when...

Hepatoblastoma (staging)

As expected there are a number of different staging systems for hepatoblastoma. Staging PRETEXT grouping system of pediatric liver tumors not specific to hepatoblastoma; used in all pediatric liver tumors Intergroup staging system specific for hepatoblastoma (see below) Intergroup staging ...

Hepatoblastoma histological classification

Although hepatoblastomas can be histologically classified into a variety of subtypes, it is important to remember that with the possible exception of small cell undifferentiated subtype, prognosis is independent of histology when adjusted for stage gender and age 1. major categories epithelial...

Epidermoid cyst

Epidermoid cysts are non-neoplastic inclusion cysts derived from ectoderm that are lined solely by squamous epithelium. These are discussed separately by anatomic location: epidermal inclusion cyst intracranial epidermoid cyst splenic epidermoid cyst spinal epidermoid cyst te...

Santorinicele

A santorinicele refers to a cystic dilatation of the end of the dorsal pancreatic duct (duct of Santorini) 1,2 and is believed to be analogous to a dilatation of the most distal common bile duct, which is commonly known as a choledochocele 3. It usually occurs in association with pancreas divis...

Hepatoblastoma

Hepatoblastoma is the most common primary malignant liver tumor in children under four years of age who usually present with painless abdominal mass and raised AFP. It is a tumor of embryonic origin. Epidemiology Most cases are seen during the first 18 months of life and diagnosis in adulthood...

Serous cystadenoma of the pancreas

Serous cystadenoma of the pancreas, also referred as microcystic adenoma, is an uncommon type of benign cystic pancreatic neoplasm. Epidemiology There is a recognized strong female predilection (M:F ~ 1:4) and usually presents in middle age to elderly patients (>60 years of age). Associatio...

COACH syndrome

The acronym COACH describes a syndrome associated with: C: cerebellar vermis defect (Joubert syndrome) O: oligophrenia A: ataxia C: coloboma H: hepatic fibrosis Epidemiology COACH syndrome is considered extremely rare. Associations The association with infantile polycystic kidney diseas...

Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome

Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (FHCS), or perihepatitis, is the inflammation of the liver capsule and overlying peritoneum associated with adhesion formation, without the involvement of the hepatic parenchyma. It is a chronic complication of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Epidemiology The preva...

Caudate–right lobe ratio

Caudate-right lobe ratio (C/RL) is used in the assessment of livers, usually in the setting of cirrhosis, in which there is atrophy of the right lobe with hypertrophy of the caudate lobe. Method for measuring image: axial slice immediately below the bifurcation of the main portal vein line 1...

Autosplenectomy

Autosplenectomy denotes spontaneous infarction of the spleen with resulting hyposplenism. Epidemiology Autosplenectomy is most frequently encountered in patients with homozygous sickle cell disease, although it has also been reported in pneumococcal septicemia 1, and systemic lupus erythematos...

Pseudocalculus sign (common bile duct)

The pseudocalculus sign is a term coined to describe a mimic of a distally impacted common bile duct (CBD) stone on ERCP, MRCP and the various forms of cholangiography, including T-tube, CT, intraoperative, and percutaneous 1. It results from the forceful contraction of the choledochal sphincte...

Target sign (choledocholithiasis)

The target sign of choledocholithiasis is a finding seen on contrast-enhanced CT and comprises: central density within the bile duct: stone surrounding low density: bile or mucosa

Choledocholithiasis

Choledocholithiasis denotes the presence of gallstones within the bile ducts (including the common hepatic duct/common bile duct). Epidemiology Choledocholithiasis is relatively common, seen in up to 20% of patients undergoing cholecystectomy for gallstone-related complaints 2. Clinical prese...

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS or TIPSS) is a treatment for portal hypertension in which direct communication is formed between a hepatic vein and a branch of the portal vein, thus allowing some proportion of portal flow to bypass the liver. The target portosystemic gradient...

Hepatopetal

Hepatopetal denotes flow of blood towards the liver, which is the normal direction of blood flow through the portal vein. The term is typically used when discussing the portal vein or recanalized vein of the ligamentum teres in patients with suspected portal hypertension. It is the opposite of ...

Hypertrophy of the caudate lobe

Hypertrophy of the caudate lobe is seen in a number of conditions, including: cirrhosis: most common Budd-Chiari syndrome primary sclerosing cholangitis (end stage) congenital hepatic fibrosis cavernous transformation of the portal vein Radiographic features The caudate-right lobe ratio m...

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein is a sequela of portal vein thrombosis and is the replacement of the normal single channel portal vein with numerous tortuous venous channels. For a discussion of demographics and presentation, please refer to the article on portal vein thrombosis. P...

Hepatic peliosis

Hepatic peliosis is a rare benign vascular condition characterized by dilatation of sinusoidal blood-filled spaces within the liver. There may be involvement of other organs, most commonly the spleen and bone marrow. It can be seen in a variety of settings and is important as appearances may mim...

Hepatic attenuation on CT

Hepatic attenuation on CT, reflected by Hounsfield values, depends on a combination of factors including the presence or absence, as well as the phase, of IV contrast administration. Allowing for all these factors, the mean unenhanced attenuation value is around 55 HU 4. Pathology Several int...

Mirizzi syndrome

Mirizzi syndrome refers to an uncommon phenomenon that results in extrinsic compression of an extrahepatic biliary duct from one or more calculi within the cystic duct or gallbladder. It is a functional hepatic syndrome but can often present with biliary duct dilatation and can mimic other hepat...

Pearl necklace sign

The pearl necklace sign occurs in adenomyomatosis of the gallbladder, on both oral cholecystograms and MRCP. It represents the contrast/fluid-filled intramural mucosal diverticula (Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses); lined up, these are reminiscent of pearls on a necklace. It is synonymous with the CT ...

Glycogen storage disease

Glycogen storage disease (GSD) refers to a number of syndromes which are characterized by a defect in synthesis, metabolism or storage of glycogen. Pathology There are many types of GSD: type I: von Gierke disease type II: Pompe disease type III: Cori or Forbes disease type IV: Andersen di...

Gallbladder polyp

Gallbladder polyps are commonly occurring elevated lesions on the mucosal surface of the gallbladder. The vast majority are benign. They are best characterized on ultrasound as a non-shadowing endophytic growth into the gallbladder lumen. Epidemiology Gallbladder polyps are relatively frequen...

Primary hepatic lymphoma

Primary hepatic lymphoma (PHL) is very rare, with approximately 100 described cases. If it is being considered as a diagnosis, distant lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, bone marrow disease, and leukemia should not be present for at least 6 months after the liver tumor has been detected (see: second...

Hepatic hemangioma

Hepatic hemangiomas or hepatic venous malformations are the most common benign vascular liver lesions. They are frequently diagnosed as an incidental finding on imaging, and most patients are asymptomatic. From a radiologic perspective, it is important to differentiate hemangiomas from hepatic m...

Kaposi sarcoma

Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is a low-to-intermediate grade mesenchymal tumor that involves the lymphovascular system. The tumor can involve the pulmonary, gastrointestinal, cutaneous and musculoskeletal systems. Although it is often thought of as an AIDS-related condition, it may also be seen in other p...

Cottage loaf sign (liver)

The cottage loaf sign occurs as a result of a right-sided diaphragmatic rupture with partial herniation of the liver through the diaphragmatic defect. The herniated component is separated by a waist at the diaphragm from the larger intra-abdominal component. This shape is reminiscent of a cottag...

Polyarteritis nodosa

Polyarteritis nodosa is a systemic inflammatory necrotizing vasculitis that involves small to medium-sized arteries (larger than arterioles). Epidemiology Polyarteritis nodosa is more common in males and typically presents around the 5th to 7th decades. 20-30% of patients are hepatitis B anti...

Portal vein thrombosis

Portal vein thrombosis may be seen in a variety of clinical contexts, and when acute can be a life-threatening condition. It is a major cause of non-cirrhotic presinusoidal portal hypertension. Portal vein thrombus may be either bland and/or malignant (i.e. tumor thrombus), and it is a critical ...

Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses

Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses are diverticula of the gallbladder wall which may be microscopic or macroscopic. Histologically, they are outpouchings of gallbladder mucosa that sit within the gallbladder muscle layer. Related pathology They are not themselves considered abnormal but may be associa...

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD), also referred as post-transplant lymphoproliferation disorder, represents a variety of conditions ranging from lymphoid hyperplasia to malignancy, included in the WHO classification of haematolymphoid tumors under "lymphoid proliferations and ...

Giant hepatic hemangioma

Giant hepatic hemangiomas, also known as giant hepatic venous malformations, are relatively uncommon non-neoplastic vascular lesions of the liver, which can be strikingly large and mimic tumors. Terminology It is important to note that according to newer nomenclature, these lesions are known ...

Primary sclerosing cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is an uncommon inflammatory condition that affects the biliary tree resulting in multiple strictures, liver damage, and eventually cirrhosis. The diagnosis can be made when there are classical imaging features in the correct clinical context, and secondary c...

Splenosis

Splenosis is one type of ectopic splenic tissue (the other being accessory spleen). It is an acquired condition and is defined as autoimplantation of one or more focal deposits of splenic tissue in various compartments of the body. Pathology Etiology Abdominal splenosis is seen after abdomina...

Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma

Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma is a distinct histological variant of hepatocellular carcinoma characterized on microscopy by laminated fibrous layers between the tumor cells. It is important as it has different demographics and risk factors compared to "standard" hepatocellular carcinoma...

Pancreatic metastases

Pancreatic metastases are uncommon and are only found in a minority (3-12%) of patients with widespread metastatic disease at autopsy. They account for only 2-5% of all pancreatic malignancies. Epidemiology Demographics will match those of the primary tumor, but in general, will be in elderly ...

Puestow procedure

The Puestow procedure or lateral pancreaticojejunostomy is a lateral side-to-side pancreaticojejunostomy that is used for the treatment of chronic pancreatitis. The pancreas is essentially filleted along its long axis from the uncinate process to the tail and connected to a Roux en-Y loop of je...

Cyst

A cyst is an abnormal fluid-filled structure which is lined by epithelium; with one exception: lung cysts may contain gas or fluid. By contradistinction, a pseudocyst lacks an epithelial lining and instead has a vascular and fibrotic capsule. Cysts are extremely common and found in most organs....

Pseudocyst

A pseudocyst is an abnormal fluid-filled cavity which is not lined by epithelium. It is this fact that distinguishes it pathologically from a cyst, which is lined by epithelium. Examples of pseudocysts include: adrenal pseudocyst auricular pseudocyst intraspinal epidural gas pseudocysts me...

Pancreatic pseudocyst

Pancreatic pseudocysts are common sequelae of acute pancreatitis or chronic pancreatitis, and the most common cystic lesion of the pancreas. They are important both in terms of management and differentiation from other cystic processes or masses in this region. Terminology The following are th...

Ultrasound appearances of hepatic metastases

Ultrasound appearance of hepatic metastases can have bewildering variation, and the presence of hepatic steatosis can affect the sonographic appearance of liver lesions. Radiographic features Ultrasound Patterns do exist between ultrasound appearance of the hepatic metastases and the likely p...

Hepatic metastases

Hepatic metastases are 18-40 times more common than primary liver tumors 6. Ultrasound, CT, and MRI are helpful in detecting hepatic metastases and evaluation across multiple post-contrast CT series, or MRI pulse sequences are necessary. Epidemiology The demographics of patients with liver me...

Bile duct stricture

Bile duct strictures are problematic in terms of management and distinction between benign and malignant. Pathology Etiology There are numerous causes of biliary duct strictures, including 1,2: malignant cholangiocarcinoma involvement by pancreatic head adenocarcinoma involvement by ampu...

Rigler triad (gallstone ileus)

Rigler triad consists of three findings seen in gallstone ileus: pneumobilia small bowel obstruction ectopic calcified gallstone, usually in the right iliac fossa History and etymology It is named after Leo George Rigler, American radiologist (1896-1979) 1. Practical points Rigler triad s...

Bismuth-Corlette classification

The Bismuth-Corlette classification is a classification system for perihilar cholangiocarcinomas, which is based on the extent of ductal infiltration. Classification type I limited to the common hepatic duct, below the level of the confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts type II in...

Liver tumors

Liver tumors, like tumors of any organ, can be classified as primary or secondary. Metastases Liver metastases are by far the most common hepatic malignancy, with many of the most common primaries readily seeding to the liver. This is especially the case with gastrointestinal tract tumors, due...

Diffuse hepatic steatosis

Diffuse hepatic steatosis, also known as fatty liver, is a common imaging finding and can lead to difficulties assessing the liver appearances, especially when associated with focal fatty sparing. Terminology The term 'fatty infiltration of the liver' is often erroneously used to describe live...

Focal fatty sparing of the liver

Focal fatty sparing of the liver is the localized absence of increased intracellular hepatic fat, in a liver otherwise fatty in appearance i.e. diffuse hepatic steatosis. Recognition of this finding is important to prevent the erroneous belief that the region of sparing is itself a mass. Epidem...

Multiple focal nodular hyperplasia syndrome

Multiple focal nodular hyperplasia occurs in approximately 20-25% of patients with focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH). It is defined by The International Working Party as consisting of two or more FNHs in combination with 1: liver hemangioma or vascular malformations (most frequent types: hepatic...

Paracaval lipoma

A paracaval lipoma (also known as juxtacaval fat collection or pseudolipoma of the inferior vena cava) refers to an apparent protrusion of paracaval fat into the inferior vena cava (IVC) and is commonly visible on CT; some believe it to be a normal anatomic variant 5. Epidemiology Paracaval l...

Liver protocol (MRI)

Examination of the liver with MRI requires numerous sequences and imaging at multiple times after the administration of contrast. Note: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specifics will vary depending on MRI hardware and software, radiologist's...

Focal nodular hyperplasia

Focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH) is a regenerative mass lesion of the liver and the second most common benign liver lesion (the most common is a hemangioma). Many focal nodular hyperplasias have characteristic radiographic features on multimodality imaging, but some lesions may be atypical in app...

Pancreatic cancer (staging)

Staging of pancreatic cancer (i.e. ductal adenocarcinoma) is traditionally performed according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) / Union for International Cancer Control (IUCC) TNM system. In the 2017 new edition (8th edition) AJCC published various major changes including exocr...

Abscess

Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1: a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue peripheral halo of viable neutrophils surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood...

Caput medusae sign - developmental venous anomalies

The caput medusae sign refers to developmental venous anomalies of the brain, where a number of veins converge centrally into a single draining vein. The sign is seen on both CT and MRI when contrast medium is administered. Angiographically the caput medusae appearance is seen only in the veno...

Increased splenic density

Increased splenic density can be due to a number of processes. The density may be due to calcification (most common) or other compounds (iron, Thorotrast), and can be seen (often incidentally) on abdominal radiographs and CT. On CT the usual splenic attenuation is 35-55 HU or ~10 HU 6 lower than...

Abdominal surface anatomy

Abdominal surface anatomy can be described when viewed from in front of the abdomen in 2 ways: divided into 9 regions by two vertical and two horizontal imaginary planes divided into 4 quadrants by single vertical and horizontal imaginary planes These regions and quadrants are of clinical imp...

Hepatomegaly

Hepatomegaly refers to an increase in size or enlargement of the liver. Pathology Etiology Hepatomegaly can result from a vast range of pathology including, but not limited to, the following: malignancy/cellular infiltrate multiple metastases lymphoma(s) leukemia(s) hepatocellular carci...

Splenomegaly

Splenomegaly refers to enlargement of the spleen. The upper limit of the normal adult splenic length is traditionally cited at 12 cm, but lengths upwards of 14 cm can be seen in normal, taller males 7. Terminology Massive splenomegaly is variably defined, including when the spleen is 5 standar...

Recurrent pyogenic cholangiohepatitis

Recurrent pyogenic cholangiohepatitis, previously known as oriental cholangiohepatitis, is a condition most commonly found in patients residing in or immigrated from Southeast Asia and is characterized by intra and extrahepatic bile duct strictures and dilatation with an intraductal pigmented st...

Melioidosis

Melioidosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei (previously known as Pseudomonas pseudomallei) and is a multisystem disorder which may affect the lungs, brain, visceral organs, or musculoskeletal system. Epidemiology Melioidosis is a disease of the monsoo...

Portal vein

The portal vein (PV) (sometimes referred to as the main or hepatic portal vein) is the main vessel in the portal venous system and drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver. Terminology A portal venous system connects two capillary beds, meaning one organ / organ sys...

Falciform ligament

The falciform ligament is a broad and thin peritoneal ligament. It is sickle-shaped and a remnant of the ventral mesentery of the fetus. It is situated in an anteroposterior plane but lies obliquely so that one surface faces forward and is in contact with the peritoneum behind the right rectus ...

Liver

The liver is the largest abdominal organ. It plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and detoxification. It is one of the very few organs that has the ability to re...

Pancreas

The pancreas (plural: pancreata) is a mostly retroperitoneal organ that has both endocrine and exocrine functions: it is involved in the production of hormones (insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin), and also involved in digestion by its production and secretion of pancreatic enzymes. Gross anat...

Omentum

An omentum is a double layer of peritoneum that attaches the stomach to another viscus: the greater omentum hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach like an apron the lesser omentum attaches the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver superiorly Gross anatomy Greater omentum The...

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are substances known to cause cancer. They include: Brain vinyl chloride Nasopharynx / nasal cavity nickel wood dust chromium Thyroid ionizing radiation Skin arsenic coal tars polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Lungs arsenic asbestos chloromethyl ethers chromium coke-o...

Variant hepatic arterial anatomy

Variation in hepatic arterial anatomy is seen in 40-45% of people. Classic branching of the common hepatic artery from the celiac artery, and the proper hepatic artery into right and left hepatic arteries to supply the entire liver, is seen in 55-60% of the population. Terminology An accessor...

Wilson disease

Wilson disease, also known as hepatolenticular degeneration, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism affecting multiple systems. Epidemiology It affects 1 in 30,000-40,000 individuals 12. 1 in 90 individuals are a heterozygous carrier 18. Clinical presentation The clinic...

Biliary atresia

Biliary atresia is a congenital biliary disorder that is characterized by an absence or severe deficiency of the extrahepatic biliary tree. It is one of the most common causes of neonatal cholestasis, often causing cirrhosis immediately and leading to death and accounts for over half of children...

Common hepatic artery

The common hepatic artery (CHA) is one of the 3 branches of the celiac artery. Gross anatomy Origin The common hepatic artery is intermediate in size, commonly arising as a terminal branch of the celiac artery, which courses to the right. Course It courses posterior to the parietal peritone...

Celiac artery

The celiac artery, also known as the celiac axis or celiac trunk, is a major splanchnic artery in the abdominal cavity supplying the foregut. It arises from the abdominal aorta and commonly gives rise to three branches: left gastric artery, splenic artery, and common hepatic artery. Gross anat...

Hepatic hydatid infection

Hepatic hydatid disease is a parasitic zoonosis caused by the Echinococcus tapeworm. In the liver, two agents are recognized as causing disease in humans: Echinococcus granulosus Echinococcus multilocularis For a general discussion, and links to other system-specific manifestations, ...

Couinaud classification of hepatic segments

The Couinaud classification (French eponym: pronounced kwee-NO) is currently the most widely used system to describe functional liver anatomy. It is the preferred anatomy classification system as it divides the liver into eight independent functional units (termed segments) rather than relying o...

Water-lily sign (hydatid cyst)

The water-lily sign, also known as the camalote sign, is seen in hydatid infections when there is detachment of the endocyst membrane which results in floating membranes within the pericyst that mimic the appearance of a water lily. It is classically described on plain radiographs (mainly chest...

Strawberry gallbladder

Strawberry gallbladder refers to the surface appearance (not shape) of the mucosa of the gallbladder due to multiple small collections of triglycerides and cholesterol esters within the lamina propria of the gallbladder wall (gallbladder wall cholesterolosis). Strawberry gallbladder represents...

Splenic cyst

Splenic epithelial cysts, also known as splenic epidermoid cysts or primary splenic cysts, are unilocular fluid lesions with thin and smooth walls and no enhancement. They represent ~20% of cysts found in the spleen, and are usually an innocuous incidental imaging finding. Note that most (~80%)...

Situs inversus

Situs inversus, (rare plural: sitūs inversi) short form of the Latin “situs inversus viscerum”, is a term used to describe the inverted position of chest and abdominal organs. Terminology The condition is called situs inversus totalis when there is a total transposition of abdominal and thorac...

Scleroderma

Scleroderma, also known as systemic sclerosis, is an autoimmune connective tissue disorder characterized by multisystem fibrosis and soft tissue calcification. As such, it affects many separate organ systems, which are discussed separately: musculoskeletal manifestations of scleroderma pulmona...

Hepatic abscess

Hepatic abscesses, like abscesses elsewhere, are localized collections of necrotic inflammatory tissue caused by bacterial, parasitic, or fungal agents. Epidemiology The frequency of individual infective agents as causes of liver abscesses are intimately linked to the demographics of the affe...

Portal hypertensive gastroenterocolopathy

Portal hypertensive gastroenterocolopathy is a finding in portal hypertension, whereby chronic portal venous congestion leads to dilatation and ectasia of the submucosal vessels of the stomach (portal hypertensive gastropathy), small bowel (portal hypertensive enteropathy) and/or large bowel (po...

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