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Laminoplasty

Laminoplasty, also known as osteoplastic reconstruction of the lamina, is an surgical procedure that involves the replacement of the lamina of the vertebral body following a laminectomy procedure in an attempt to provide better post-operative stabilization. Indications spinal stenosis c...

Buffalo hump

A buffalo hump describes lipomatosis of the posterior neck and interscapular region. It may be idiopathic or caused by a variety of underlying medical conditions. idiopathic Cushing syndrome 1 Cushing disease steroid therapy HIV-associated lipodystrophy 2 Mad...

Rectus capitis lateralis muscle

The rectus capitis lateralis muscle is an integral component of the prevertebral muscle group, which plays a pivotal role in head movement and serves as a vital surgical landmark. Summary origin: superior transverse processes of the atlas insertion: inferior to the jugular processes of the oc...

Antitragicus muscle

The antitragicus muscle is an intrinsic muscle of the outer ear that is part of the broader auricular muscle group. Summary origin: posterior surface of the antitragus insertion: tail of the helix innervation: posterior auricular branch of the facial nerve action: assists in ear...

Tragus

The tragus is a small, cartilaginous projection situated anteriorly to the external auditory meatus. Relations The tragus is positioned anteriorly to the external auditory meatus and is surrounded by other components of the external ear, including the antitragus and the helix. Arterial Supply...

Tragicus muscle

The tragicus muscle is an intrinsic muscle of the outer ear that facilitates the opening of the external auditory canal and assists in minor movement of the tragus. Summary: origin: base of tragus insertion: apex of tragus blood supply: branches of facial arteries innervation: f...

Anti Sjögren syndrome related antigen antibodies

Anti Sjögren’s syndrome related antigen antibodies are a group of antibodies against autoantigens which include Ro/SSA anti-Ro52 anti-Ro60 La/SSB They are currently thought to be associated a number of autoimmune conditions. They were originally identified in patients with Sjögren syndrom...

Helicis minor muscle

The helicis minor muscle is a small, intrinsic auricular muscle responsible for shaping the anterior margin of the ear. Summary origin: base of the helix of the ear insertion: anterior helix blood supply: branches of the facial arteries innervation: posterior and temporal auricular nerves o...

Helicis major muscle

The helicis major muscle is an intrinsic auricular muscle that plays a vestigial role in adjusting the shape of the ear. Summary origin: root of the helix of the ear insertion: anterior border of the helix blood supply: anterior auricular branches of the superficial temporal artery and other...

Knuckle pads

Knuckle pads, also known as Garrod pads, Garrod nodes or holoderma, are benign, subcutaneous, fibrofatty growths that overlie the interphalangeal joints of the fingers or toes 1,2. These are a rare form of superficial musculoskeletal fibromatoses. Clinical presentation Knuckle pads present as ...

Median nerve flattening ratio

The median nerve flattening ratio is a parameter used for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome (usually by ultrasound). It is calculated by dividing the span of the long axis by that of the short axis of the median nerve at around the pisiform level. A ratio of greater then 3 is often consi...

Congenital rib fusion

Congenital rib fusion refers to the congenital failure of the segmentation of one or more ribs, which can be focal or extended and involve the anterior or posterior arch of the rib. The rib fusion can be complete or accompanied by pseudo articulation and mimic a healing fracture on the chest x...

Brachyphalangia

Brachyphalangia refers to the shortness of one or more phalanges of the hands or feet usually due to the early closure of the phalange's growth plate. This anomaly is one of the most common non-syndromic cause of brachydactyly and may accosiated with clinodactyly.

Mental spines

Mental spines are small, midline, paired, bony protuberances (or eminences) of the posterior lingual surface of the mandible. There are usually two superior and two inferior spines. They represent the anchor points of origin of the superior genioglossus and the inferior geniohyoid muscles 1,2. C...

Obturator fascia

The obturator fascia is the fascia of the obturator internus muscle which covers its internal surface and attaches to the bony margins of the obturator foramen. Superomedially, the obturator fascia gives way to the obturator canal, allowing the obturator artery, vein and nerve to communicate b...

Palmar carpal ligament

The palmar carpal ligament (also known as the volar carpal ligament) is a fibrous structure that forms the roof of Guyon's canal. Proximally, it is continuous with the deep fascia of the forearm and attaches to the pisiform, pisiform ligamentous complex and a leaf of the flexor retinaculum over...

Kocher criteria for pediatric septic arthritis of the hip

The Kocher criteria for pediatric septic arthritis of the hip is a risk stratification score to aid in differentiating between septic arthritis and transient synovitis of the hip in the pediatric population. Criteria non-weight-bearing temperature >38.5°C or >101.3°F CRP >2.0 mg/dL or ESR >4...

Nerot-Sirveaux classification of scapular notching

The Nerot-Sirveaux classification of scapular notching describes the radiographic extent of bone loss in patients with scapular notching after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA). An AP glenoid view (tangential to baseplate) is needed to assess for scapular notching, which will allow vis...

Periprosthetic joint infection of shoulder arthroplasties

Periprosthetic joint infection of shoulder arthroplasties is one of the most common reasons for post-operative revision surgery. Propionibacterium acnes is the most commonly associated organism. Epidemiology The mean incidence has been reported to be ~1%; although after reverse total shoulder ...

Anti-RO52 antibodies

Anti-Ro52 antibodies are a form of antibodies which are associated with distinct clinical manifestations. They target a protein called TRIM21 protein and can occur in a variety of connective tissue diseases (CTD) which include anti-Ro52-positive antisynthetase syndrome and with lung considered...

Solitary bone tumor imaging reporting and data system (BTI-RADS)

Solitary bone tumor imaging reporting and data system (BTI-RADS) is a reporting and communication tool designed to stratify benign and malignant bone lesions and to communicate them in a systematic and standardized way 1,2. History and etymology The solitary bone tumor imaging reporting and da...

CT myelography

CT myelography is a myelography technique used mainly to assess for potential spinal canal stenosis when MRI is contraindicated or when dynamic imaging is required. History CT myelography was first performed in 1976 2. Indications spinal canal stenosis when MRI is contraindicated dorsal tho...

Core decompression of osteonecrosis of humeral head

Core decompression is the first-line surgical option for symptomatic and low-grade osteonecrosis of the humeral head. Core decompression is a treatment for improving symptoms and preventing progression and humeral head collapse (crescent sign). Without treatment, the osteonecrosis of the humeral...

Subscapularis insufficiency after shoulder arthroplasty

Subscapularis insufficiency after shoulder arthroplasty is a complication that can cause severe loss of function and implant longevity. Exposure of the glenohumeral joint during surgical total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) procedures is associated with a risk of causing iatrogenic damage to the su...

Reverse rugger jersey spine

Reverse rugger jersey spine describes the low endplate densities at multiple contiguous vertebral levels producing an alternating lucent-sclerotic-lucent appearance. It's the reverse counterpart of the rugger jersey spine and also mimics the horizontal stripes of a rugby jersey. Pathology The ...

Rings and arcs enhancement

Rings and arcs enhancement is an MRI enhancement pattern described as curvilinear post-contrast T1-hyperintensities. This pattern is generally observed in hyaline cartilage-containing tumors (e.g. enchondroma, chondrosarcoma)1,2 Pathology This pattern is due to the enhancement of the capillari...

Leddy and Packer classification of jersey finger injuries

The Leddy and Packer classification of jersey finger injuries, which is an avulsion injury of the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) from its insertion at the base of the distal phalanx, is based on the level of tendon retraction and presence of fracture 2,3. Classification Leddy and Packer clas...

Wright and Cofield classification of postoperative periprosthetic humeral fractures

The Wright and Cofield classification system can be used for postoperative periprosthetic humeral fractures. Humeral periprosthetic fractures may be intraoperative or postoperative shoulder arthroplasty complications, which can lead to loosening and migration of the prosthesis 1. Classification...

Cruess classification of humeral head osteonecrosis

The Cruess classification of humeral head osteonecrosis uses plain radiographs, CT and/or MRI for its staging system. Early Cruess stage osteonecrosis may only be detected on MRI. Classification The Cruess classification is the best-known system and is composed of five stages 1: stage I: pre-...

Acromial and scapular spine fractures after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty

Acromial and scapular spine fractures after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) can occur intraoperatively or postoperatively with post-operative stress fractures the most common. Epidemiology Acromial and scapular spine fractures complicated ~5% (range 3.1-11.2%) of RTSAs 1,2. Patholo...

Pico method

The Pico method is a CT-based calculation of glenoid bone loss in terms of an area (expressed in mm 2 or surface percentage). Before treatment, glenoid bone defect quantification with PICO method is required to select the best option (i.e. arthroscopy vs open surgery with bone transposition). M...

Stellate crease

A stellate crease, also known as a stellate lesion, is an indentation in the acetabular roof composed of radiating lines caused by a focal area of hyaline cartilage deficiency, which is in continuity with the acetabular notch 1,2. They are found above the anterosuperior aspect of the acetabulum...

Hand-foot-genital syndrome

Hand-foot-genital syndrome (previously known as hand-foot-uterus syndrome) refers to a hereditary disorder with abnormalities involving the hands and feet and uterus. Affected patients can have urogenital abnormalities in females bicornuate uterus vaginal septum ectopic localization of uret...

Osseous Tumor Reporting and Data System (OT-RADS)

Osseous Tumor Reporting and Data System (OT-RADS) is a reporting and communication tool designed to reliably identify benign and malignant bone tumors and to communicate them in a standardized way, using BI-RADS as an example 1-3. History and etymology The Osseous Tumor Reporting and Data Syst...

Canal-to-body ratio of Torg and Pavlov

The canal-to-body ratio of Torg and Pavlov is a method of evaluating the degree of cervical canal stenosis on lateral cervical spine radiographs. Terminology This ratio is variously referred to as the Torg ratio 3, the Pavlov ratio 3,4, the Torg-Pavlov ratio 5, or the canal-to-body ratio 3. M...

Foot pain

Foot pain is a very common symptom. The differential diagnosis depends mainly on age, weight, level of physical activity, and the exact location of the pain. As neoplastic lesions are ubiquitary, they will not be added to the sections below. Hindfoot pain inferior heel pain trauma and bone b...

Scapulohumeral arthrodesis with a reconstruction plate

Shoulder arthrodesis with reconstruction plate aims to relieve pain and provide a stable site for elbow and hand function and also to allow for active and limited elevation of the shoulder with scapulothoracic motion. Plates are a useful method for glenohumeral salvage in cases without severe bo...

Chronic granulomatous inflammatory process

Chronic granulomatous inflammation is a disease process that mostly affects the soft tissues and is an inflammation where a compact collection of cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system, chiefly activated macrophages and cells derived from them are predominant 1. Pathology There are two majo...

Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK)

Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is a special thermoplastic engineering plastic with biological, mechanical, and chemical properties that provides an alternative to titanium alloys in the development of implantable load-bearing medical devices, which require extra strength and biocompatibility 1,2....

Short humeral stem arthroplasthy

A short humeral stem arthroplasty is less than 100 mm in length (standard-length > 100 mm) and comprises titanium with a proximal porous surface coating and metaphyseal press-fit fixation Advantages and disadvantages Advantages preserving bone stock eliminates damaging biological effects of ...

Infraspinatus tendon tear

Infraspinatus tendon tears are rotator cuff injuries affecting the infraspinatus tendon generally associated with other rotator cuff tears and are usually due to degenerative processes, trauma, or constant overhead motion strain 1. Epidemiology Isolated full-thickness infraspinatus tendon tear...

Periosteum

The periosteum is a thin membrane of connective tissue composed of different layers covering the surface of a bone, providing structural integrity and contributing to growth and development as well as the repair of bone 1-3. Gross anatomy The periosteum consists of different layers in particul...

Overstuffing (shoulder arthroplasty)

Overstuffing of the total shoulder arthroplasty or shoulder hemiarthroplasty is secondary to an oversized humeral component or inaccurate positioning of the prosthetic humeral head, which can lead to subacromial impingement from malposition with attritional rotator cuff tears. Medial overstuffi...

Stress shielding after fracture fixation

Stress shielding after fracture fixation is a result of the higher stiffness of the implant, which results in bone loss as a consequence of decreased physiologic loading of the bone according to Wolff's law. Stainless steel, although leads to an excellent union rate, eliminates dynamic loading t...

Peripheral intermediate and high-grade chondrosarcoma

Peripheral chondrosarcomas grade 2 and 3 are malignant intermediate and high-grade chondrogenic neoplasms originating from the bony surface in the chondral cap of pre-existing osteochondromas as a result of malignant transformation, thus the name secondary peripheral chondrosarcoma 1,2. Secondar...

Peripheral atypical cartilaginous tumor/ low-grade peripheral chondrosarcoma

Peripheral atypical cartilaginous tumors/chondrosarcomas grade 1 (ACT/CS1) or low-grade peripheral chondrosarcomas are locally aggressive chondral neoplasms that grow within the cartilaginous cap of pre-existing osteochondromas as a result of malignant transformation. Thus these peripheral chond...

Titanium elastic nail system

Titanium elastic nail system (TENS) is a form of intramedullary nailing typically used in the pediatric population because of the presence of a thick periosteum and the increased potential for bone remodeling in children. They are not routinely used in adults due to a lack of resistance to rota...

Stress shielding of the proximal humerus

Stress shielding of the proximal humerus after total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) is a bone resorption around the proximal prosthesis stem. Pathology According to Wolff's Law, bone remodels in response to stress. After a TSA or shoulder hemiarthroplasty, intact bone previously responsible for b...

Rocking-horse phenomenon

Rocking-horse phenomenon occurs in total shoulder arthroplasty when there is an abnormal glenoid version angle positioning that causes glenoid component failure. The glenoid component is stable when the load applied by the humeral head is centered, whereas anterior or posterior translation of ...

Pyrocarbon

Pyrocarbon or pyrolytic carbon is a synthetic material that, due to its tribological properties and biocompatibility, particularly with blood, was initially used in the medical field for mechanical heart valves. To make pyrocarbon-coated orthopedic implants, a graphite substrate is coated with ...

Posterior meniscofemoral ligament (of Wrisberg)

The posterior meniscofemoral ligament or ligament of Wrisberg is one of the two variably present bands of the meniscofemoral ligament. Gross anatomy The posterior meniscofemoral ligament has insertions proximally at the lateral intercondylar aspect of the medial femoral condyle and distally a...

Central intermediate and high-grade chondrosarcoma

Central chondrosarcomas grade 2 and 3 (CS2/CS3) are malignant intermediate- and high-grade conventional chondrosarcomas that arise intramedullary 1-3. Epidemiology Similar to low-grade chondrosarcoma, the incidence of central intermediate and high-grade chondrosarcomas has also risen compared ...

Glenoiditis

Glenoiditis or glenoid wear is the progressive erosion/wear of the native glenoid and is the most common complication of shoulder hemiarthroplasty. It may be caused by oversized humeral heads and insufficient joint release. Epidemiology Glenoiditis after shoulder hemiarthroplasty occurs in one...

Central atypical cartilaginous tumor/ low-grade chondrosarcoma

Central atypical cartilaginous tumors/chondrosarcomas grade 1 (ACT/CS1) or low-grade central chondrosarcomas are locally aggressive chondral neoplasms that arise centrally within bone from the medullar cavity. They constitute the most common form of conventional chondrosarcoma. Terminology The...

Eden-Hybinette procedure

The Eden-Hybinette procedure is the most common surgery for revision of a failed Latarjet procedure. When there are greater degrees of glenoid bone loss, the Latarjet procedure may not be sufficient to ensure adequate stability. This is an open or arthroscopic procedure that uses an iliac crest ...

Epiphyseal cortical irregularity

An epiphyseal cortical irregularity is an anatomical variant featuring a fragmented appearance of the distal femoral epiphysis in children. Epidemiology Epiphyseal cortical irregularity is a rare finding, accounting for 6.7% of all incidental findings on a knee radiograph series 1. It has a h...

Pathria grading system of lumbar facet joint degeneration

The Pathria grading system is used to classify osteoarthritis in lumbar facet joint degeneration. Usage This grading system is based on CT findings 1,2. Classification grade 1: normal CT scan with no degenerative findings grade 2: mild joint space narrowing noted, small osteophytes grade 3...

Signet ring (disambiguation)

The term signet ring refers to the characteristic shape of the jewelry item and in radiology and medicine may refer to the following: signet ring sign (bronchiectasis) signet ring sign (scaphoid) signet ring sign of renal papillary necrosis in intravenous urography signet ring ce...

Signet ring sign (scaphoid)

The signet ring sign or cortical ring sign refers to the rounded cortex of the scaphoid tubercle on a AP or PA wrist radiograph due to rotatory subluxation from flexion of the scaphoid. It is seen in injuries of the scapholunate ligament (scapholunate dissociation) and the related perilunate and...

Arthritis

Arthritis (plural: arthritides) refers to inflammation of the joints, caused by a broad range of etiologies. Terminology Arthropathy is a broader term referring to any disease of the joint, whereas arthritis is a type of arthropathy specifically referring to inflammation of the joint. Patholo...

Cornuate navicular

A cornuate navicular (also termed a Geist type 3 accessory navicular) is considered a from a fused variant of accessory navicular bones. Radiographic features It may be seen as a prominent bony projection to the medial aspect of the navicular bone. Plain radiographs Seen as a prominent media...

Bone surface lesions

Bone surface lesions refer to all neoplastic or neoplastic-like lesions arising from the bone surface (cortex, periosteum, and parosteal fibrous tissues) and developing outside of the bone medullary canal. Neoplastic fat-containing matrix parosteal lipoma parosteal osteoliposarcoma 2 bone m...

Scapular notching

Scapular notching is a radiologic finding post reverse total shoulder arthroplasty that correlates to erosion of the scapular neck. The erosion occurs due to the repetitive contact between the polyethylene of the humeral component and the inferior scapular neck during adduction and progressive ...

Common extensor tendon injury

Common extensor tendon injuries of the elbow include partial and complete tears or detachment of the common extensor tendon origin of the elbow and are commonly associated with lateral epicondylitis 1-4. Epidemiology Common extensor tendon injuries are the most common acute tendon injuries of ...

Acromioclavicular joint cyst

Acromioclavicular joint cysts are benign lesions, either ganglionic or synovial in etiology. Clinical presentation Soft, slightly painful mass above the acromioclavicular joint, sometimes slightly limiting shoulder range of motion. Pathology Classified into two types according to their etiol...

Superior clunal nerve

The superior clunal nerve is a sensory nerve that originates from the dorsal rami of T11 – L4. The nerve travels obliquely across the buttock. It penetrates thoracolumbar fascia at the iliac crest 1-3. Approximately, half of the nerve fibers travel within an osteofibrous tunnel of the iliac cre...

Long head of biceps tenodesis

Long head of biceps tenodesis is a surgical procedure usually performed to address long head of biceps pain and other pathology relating to the long head of biceps tendon as well as other regional pathology such as SLAP tears. Several surgical techniques exist and almost all of them involve bi...

Scapulothoracic dissociation

Scapulothoracic dissociation is a rare potentially life and limb-threatening condition with high mortality characterized by disruption of the scapulothoracic articulation 1-3. Epidemiology Associations Scapulothoracic dissociation is associated with the following 2: polytrauma brachial plex...

Augmented glenoid implants in shoulder artroplasthy

Augmented glenoid implants in shoulder arthroplasty are used for glenohumeral osteoarthritis with Walch type B2 and B3 glenoid morphology, which are characterized by humeral head posterior subluxation 1-3. Shoulder replacement with augmentation of the glenoid implant allows for: correct glenoi...

Von Laer classification of pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures

The Von Laer classification, also known as the Laer classification, is used to grade the severity and the need for further diagnostic evaluation and surgical correction of pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures, based on their clinical and radiological presentation. Classification Von Laer'...

Weishaupt grading system of lumbar facet joint degeneration

The Weishaupt grading system is a radiological classification system used for lumbar facet joint degeneration. Usage The Weishaupt grading system for lumbar facet joint degeneration can be used in CT and/or MRI 1,2. Classification grade 0: normal facet joint width (~2-4 mm) grade 1: facet j...

Subchondral cysts of the lunate

Subchondral cysts of the lunate are a location specific subtype of subchondral cysts. They can often associated with ulnar impaction syndrome especially if they occur at the proximal ulnar margin. Differential diagnosis intraosseous ganglion of lunate

NTRK-rearranged soft tissue neoplasm

NTRK-rearranged soft tissue neoplasms (emerging), lipofibromatosis-like neural tumors or NTRK-positive tumor-resembling peripheral nerve sheath tumors are a group of rare molecularly defined spindle cell neoplasms excluding infantile fibrosarcoma 1.2. The tumors form a provisional category of un...

Supraspinatus tendon tear

Supraspinatus tendon tears are rotator cuff injuries affecting the supraspinatus tendon and are a common cause of shoulder pain. Epidemiology They are the most common rotator cuff injuries and around 1/3 of them are isolated only affecting the supraspinatus tendon 1. Incidence is estimated to ...

Leiomyoma of soft tissue

Soft tissue leiomyomas are benign smooth muscle neoplasms usually found in the somatic deep soft tissues, the retroperitoneum and the abdominal cavity 1. Epidemiology Leiomyomas of the deep somatic tissues are rare soft tissue neoplasms that have been primarily found in middle-aged adults with...

Posterior tibial slope

Posterior tibial slope (PTS) is the slope of the tibial plateau from anterior to posterior relative to the longitudinal axis of the tibia. Usage Posterior tibial slope can affect knee range of motion, flexion gap, knee joint stability, ACL ligament stability and posterior femoral rollback 1,2....

Medial malleolar bursitis

Medial malleolar bursitis is a rare cause of ankle pain 1. The medial malleolar bursa is an adventitial bursa that may develop over the medial malleolus usually due to wearing footwear that tightly encloses ankles and is commonly seen in figure skating and ice hockey players 2. This often leads ...

Locked knee

Locked knee is characterized by the inability of the patient to extend the knee. The most common cause for obstruction is bucket handle tears of the meniscus 1. Other causes for obstruction include cruciate ligament stumps, osteochondral fractures, synovial plicae, loose bodies and gouty tophi 2...

ISAKOS classification of meniscal tears

ISAKOS classification of meniscal tears classifies meniscal tears based on arthroscopic evaluation 1. Usage The classification system is primarily developed for surgical documentation of meniscal tears and it has shown good inter-observer reliability amongst surgeons 2,3. Classification Tea...

Gluteal tendinopathy

Gluteal tendinopathy is a common cause for lateral hip pain. Females are more affected than males and commonly presents around fourth to sixth decade of life. Presents with pain whilst walking, pain when lying on affected side and during other weight-bearing tasks 1. Ultrasound scan and MRI play...

Cooks syndrome

Cooks syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder. It is characterized by bilateral absence of distal phalanges in hand and feet, absence of nails, digitalization of thumb and little finger brachydactyly 1,2. There was no skeletal abnormality noted in these patients. Only around 20 c...

Patella tilt angle

The patella tilt angle is a measurement of patellar tilt. It can be evaluated on axial images by the angle between the posterior condylar line and the maximal patella width line. It can be used in the assessment of patellofemoral instability. See also patellofemoral angle

Chronic elbow instability

Chronic elbow instability presents with pain, apprehension or subluxation of the elbow joint on movement with three types recognized: valgus, posterolateral, and posteromedial. Clinical presentation Patients present with pain, apprehension on movement and subluxation of the elbow joint. In va...

Intertransversarii muscle group

The intertransversarii muscles are small and short muscles found in the deepest layer of the intrinsic back muscles extending between the transverse processes of adjacent cervical and lumbar vertebrae. The cervical intertransversarii are subdivided into seven pairs of anterior and posterior musc...

Femoro-epiphyseal acetabular roof (FEAR) index

The femoro-epiphyseal acetabular roof (FEAR) index is a radiographic measurement to help identify clinical hip microinstability in acetabular dysplasia. Usage The FEAR index should be used in conjunction with clinical and other radiographic features for the identification of clinically unstabl...

Distal radioulnar joint osteoarthritis

Distal radioulnar joint osteoarthritis is a condition in which arthritis in distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) causes pain and limited function in wrist joint. DRUJ plays a vital role in forearm rotation and axial weight bearing. Soft tissues around this joint play an important role in providing sta...

Interspinales muscles

The interspinales muscles are a group of paired muscle fascicles found in the paraspinal portion of the deepest layer of the intrinsic back muscles. Gross anatomy The interspinales muscles extend between the spinous processes of two neighboring vertebrae. They are present throughout the entir...

Denervation pseudohypertrophy of calf muscles

Denervation pseudohypertrophy of calf muscles is a rare cause of unilateral limb swelling. It is important to exclude and consider other causes for this presentation. Clinical presentation This condition usually presents as painless unilateral calf swelling. Pathology More commonly, denerva...

Soleal sling syndrome

Soleal sling syndrome is a rare tibial nerve entrapment syndrome. More commonly the tibial nerve gets entrapped in the tarsal tunnel. In soleal sling syndrome, the nerve gets compressed under the tendinous arch at the origin of soleus muscle 1. Clinical presentation Can present with numbness i...

Inflammatory leiomyosarcoma

Inflammatory leiomyosarcomas are malignant tumors with smooth muscle differentiation and a prominent inflammatory infiltrate that were just recently recognized as a distinct entity by the WHO in 2020 1-3. Epidemiology Inflammatory leiomyosarcomas are very rare lesions with most cases seen in a...

Middle clunal nerve entrapment

Middle clunal nerve entrapment is a potential cause of low back pain. The middle clunal nerves travel beneath the long posterior sacroiliac ligament and this is a potential space for nerve entrapment 1. Clinical presentation Low back pain and leg pain can be caused by entrapment of these nerve...

Rectus capitis anterior muscle

The rectus capitis anterior muscle is a short muscle that belongs to the prevertebral and anterior neck muscles. It is located anterior to the vertebral column and stretches between the atlas and the base of the skull. Summary origin: lateral mass and transverse process of atlas (C1) insertio...

Middle clunal nerve

The middle clunal nerve is a sensory nerve that originates from S1-S4 1. It travels underneath the long posterior sacroiliac ligament (LPSL) and passes between the posterior superior iliac spine and posterior inferior iliac spine to course over the iliac crest 1. It supplies sensation to the lum...

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