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Posterolateral lumbar fusion

Posterolateral lumbar fusion is an alternative technique to lumbar interbody fusion and can be a primary procedure or performed after lumbar laminectomy for spinal decompression to aid in stability after disruption of the posterior tension band. Posterior instrumentation via pedicle screws and r...

Lumbar interbody fusion (overview)

Lumbar interbody fusion is a common technique that aims for osseous fusion after discectomy. There are anterior and posterior approaches (relative to the transverse process), some of which require additional instrumentation, and none of which have been demonstrated to be clinically superior wi...

Os sustentaculi

The os sustentaculi or os sustentaculum is a rare accessory ossicle of the ankle and a normal anatomical variant. Epidemiology The estimated prevalence is approximately 0.3-0.4% 1. Associations It has been found in up 24% of talocalcaneal coalitions 2. Gross anatomy The os sustentaculi is ...

Accessory extensor digiti secundus muscle

The accessory extensor digiti secundus muscle is a rare accessory muscle or tendon of the ankle and an anatomical variant. Summary origin: extensor hallucis longus tendon or muscle insertion: medial phalanx of the second toe adjacent to the second tendon of the extensor digitorum longus muscl...

Anterior fibulocalcaneus muscle

The anterior fibulocalcaneus muscle is a rare accessory muscle of the ankle and an anatomical variant. Summary origin: the proximal third of the fibula, peroneus tertius muscle fascia, anterior crural intermuscular septum insertion: lateral calcaneus anterosuperior to the peroneal tubercle ju...

Extensor hallucis capsularis tendon

The extensor hallucis capsularis tendon, also known as secondary extensor hallucis longus, accessory extensor tendon of the first metatarsophalangeal joint, extensor ossis metatarsi hallucis or extensor ossis primi internodii hallucis is an accessory tendon or muscle of the ankle and an anatomic...

Tibiocalcaneus internus muscle

The tibiocalcaneus internus muscle is a rare accessory muscle of the ankle and an anatomical variant with an unknown prevalence. Summary origin: medial crest of the lower third of the tibia insertion: medial surface of the calcaneus approximately 1-2 cm anterior to the Achilles tendon Gross ...

Peroneocalcaneus internus muscle

The peroneocalcaneus internus muscle, also known as fibulocalcaneus internus muscle of MacAlister, is a rare accessory muscle of the ankle and an anatomical variant with an estimated prevalence of about 1%. It is often bilateral if present. Summary origin: the medial surface of the distal...

Tibioastragalus anticus of Gruber muscle

The tibioastragalus anticus of Gruber (TAAG) muscle or anterior tibiotalus muscle is a rare accessory muscle of the ankle and an anatomical variant. Summary origin: lateral tibial surface and the interosseous membrane of the distal third of the lower leg insertion: anterior superolateral neck...

Anococcygeal nerve

The anococcygeal nerve is the terminal branch of the coccygeal plexus and is described as supplying the skin of the post anal region. Gross anatomy Origin The anococcygeal nerve originates from the coccygeal plexus 2. Course The course of the anococcygeal nerve varies according to source i...

Accessory muscles of the ankle

Accessory muscles of the ankle are muscular anatomical variants that are usually asymptomatic but rarely cause symptoms or might be encountered on imaging studies. The following accessory muscles around the ankle have been described 1-4: posteromedial/flexor compartment accessory flexor digit...

Spring ligament complex injury

Spring ligament complex injuries or calcaneonavicular ligament injuries refer to stretching sprains, tears, or ruptures of the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament complex and can affect one or more of the three portions. Epidemiology Spring ligament complex injuries are most commonly associated...

Anterior calcaneal process fracture

Anterior calcaneal process fractures are often missed fractures of the calcaneus (up to 88% are not reported on radiographic examination of the ankle) 1 leading to non-union of bone fragments, unrecognised associated ligamentous injuries, and persistent ankle or foot pain. Epidemiology Anterio...

Coccygeal plexus

The coccygeal plexus is formed by the anterior rami of S4-S5 in combination with the coccygeal nerve and is described as supplying the skin of the post-anal region. Gross anatomy Origin The plexus consists of a minute network of nerve fibers contributed by the anterior rami of S4, S5 and the ...

Pediatric thumb (lateral view)

The lateral thumb view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the distal metacarpal, distal and proximal phalanges. Indications This projection is useful for diagnosing fractures and localizing foreign bodies in pediatric patients. It also presents as an orthogonal view of the ...

Low lying acromion

A low lying acromion is a type of acromioclavicular joint configuration where the inferior cortex of the acromion lies below the inferior cortex of the clavicle. This can cause narrowing of the subacromial space and in turn in lead to subacromial impingement. Differential diagnosis On imaging...

Pumice stone sign

The pumice stone sign is a recently described distinctive imaging appearance of emphysematous osteomyelitis on CT described as clusters of greater than 3 distinct foci of intramedullary gas with irregularly irregular sizes ranging between 2 and 5 mm with resemblance to surface appearance of pumi...

Dedifferentiated chordoma

Dedifferentiated chordomas are biphasic malignant tumors composed of notochordal and high-grade sacomatous components. Epidemiology Dedifferentiated chordomas are very rare tumors that might be seen in recurrences or after radiotherapy 1-3. Diagnosis The diagnosis is based on typical imaging...

Poorly differentiated chordoma

Poorly differentiated chordomas are highly aggressive poorly differentiated notochordal tumors with a loss of SMARCB1 expression. Epidemiology Poorly differentiated chordomas are very rare tumors typically seen in children and young adults under the age of 30 years. Females are more frequently...

Bone lymphoma

Lymphoma of the bone may represent lymphoma that has originated within that bone itself i.e. primary, or metastasized there from another organ/tissue, i.e. secondary. Secondary forms of bone lymphoma are much more common than the primary bone form. primary osseous lymphoma secondary osseous ly...

Secondary osteosarcoma

Secondary osteosarcomas are osteosarcomas growing on abnormal bone in the setting of various underlying osseous disorders. Terminology Other acceptable terms include Paget sarcoma, osteosarcoma in Paget disease of bone or radiation-associated osteosarcoma, if applicable. The terms postirradiat...

Idiopathic scoliosis

Idiopathic scoliosis describes scoliosis that has no clinically or radiologically identifiable underlying cause. It is the dominant type of scoliosis with ~80% of all scolioses being idiopathic. Pathology Idiopathic scoliosis can be classified by age into: adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (>11...

Small cell osteosarcoma

Small cell osteosarcomas (SCOS) are a rare subtype of osteosarcoma characterized by the production of small round cells. Epidemiology Small cell osteosarcomas account for approximately 1.5% of osteosarcomas. They occur mainly in young adolescents with a mild female predilection but have been f...

Solid variant of aneurysmal bone cyst

The solid variant of the aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC) is a rare non-neoplastic and reactive bone lesion. It differs from the classical type of ABC in certain aspects. Epidemiology The solid variant of ABC has an incidence of ~5% (range 3.4-7.5%) and is found to have slight female predilection (1...

CIC-rearranged sarcoma

CIC-rearranged sarcomas or CIC-DUX4 sarcomas are aggressive undifferentiated small round cell sarcomas with CIC-gene fusions most frequently CIC-DUX4. It is an ultra-rare high grade undifferentiated sarcoma, distinct in terms of clinical presentations and molecular characteristics 6. Epidemiolo...

Genetic tumor syndromes of soft tissue and bone

Genetic tumor syndromes of soft tissue and bone are a group of genetic disorders and disease syndromes associated with neoplasms that display different features than their sporadic counterparts. These genetic syndromes have been classified separately by the World Health Organization (WHO) and co...

Undifferentiated small round cell sarcomas of bone and soft tissue

Undifferentiated small round cell sarcomas of bone and soft tissue are a group of malignant bone and soft tissue tumors characterized by small round cell morphology. They comprise the following tumors 1: Ewing sarcoma round cell sarcoma with EWSR1-non-ETS fusions CIC-rearranged sarcoma sarco...

Sarcoma with BCOR genetic alteration

Sarcomas with BCOR genetic alterations or BCOR sarcomas are uncommon malignant undifferentiated small round cell tumors of soft tissue and bone characterized by BCOR genetic alterations and comprise sarcomas with BCOR-related gene fusions as BCOR-CCNB3 sarcomas and other BCOR-rearranged sarcomas...

Fibrocartilaginous mesenchymoma

Fibrocartilaginous mesenchymomas are very rare locally aggressive mesenchymal bone tumors composed of spindle cells seen in children and adolescents. Terminology The term 'fibrocartilaginous mesenchymoma with low-grade malignancy' has been discouraged 1. Epidemiology Fibrocartilaginous mesen...

CT elbow (protocol)

The CT elbow protocol serves as an examination for the bony assessment of the elbow and is usually performed as a non-contrast study. It can be also combined with a CT arthrogram for the evaluation of chondral and osteochondral injuries. Note: This article aims to frame a general concept of a ...

CT hand and wrist (protocol)

The CT hand and wrist protocol serves as an examination for the bony assessment of the wrist and is often performed as a non-contrast study and less often as a contrast-enhanced study. A CT wrist can be also conducted as a CT arthrogram for the evaluation of ligamentous injuries and the triangul...

CT pelvis (protocol)

The CT pelvis protocol serves as an outline for the acquisition of a pelvic CT. As a separate examination, it might be performed as a non-contrast or contrast study or might be combined with a CT hip or rarely with a CT cystogram. A pelvic CT might be also conducted as a part of other scans such...

Prefemoral fat pad impingement syndrome

Prefemoral fat pad impingement syndrome, also known as supratrochlear / posterior suprapatellar fat pad impingement syndrome, is one of the fat pad impingement syndromes of the knee, specifically involving the prefemoral fat pad. Clinical presentation Patients present with anterior knee pain e...

CT thoracic spine (protocol)

The CT thoracic spine or T-spine protocol serves as an examination for the assessment of the thoracic spine. As a separate examination, it is often performed as a non-contrast study. It might be combined or simultaneously acquired with a CT chest or CT chest-abdomen-pelvis as part of a trauma or...

Lateral acromial angle

The lateral acromial angle is a measurement performed on plain film AP projection or coronal images of CT or MRI to assess the position of the acromion. Measurement It is measured by drawing a vertical line lateral and perpendicular to the glenoid and a horizontal line parallel to the acromion...

CT lumbar spine (protocol)

The CT lumbar spine or L-spine protocol serves as an examination for the assessment of the lumbar spine. As a separate examination, it is most often performed as a non-contrast study. It might be combined or simultaneously acquired with a CT abdomen. It also forms a part of a polytrauma CT or mi...

CT cervical spine (protocol)

The CT cervical spine or C-spine protocol serves as an examination for the assessment of the cervical spine. It is usually performed as a non-contrast study. In certain situations, it might be combined or simultaneously acquired with a CT angiography of the cerebral arteries or a CT of the neck....

CT shoulder (protocol)

The CT shoulder protocol serves as an examination for the assessment of the shoulder joint. It is often performed as a non-contrast study. It can be combined with a CT arthrogram for the evaluation of labral injuries or the rotator cuff if MRI is contraindicated or in a postoperative setting whe...

CT hip (protocol)

The CT hip protocol serves as an examination for the evaluation of the hip joint. It is often performed as a non-contrast study. However, it can be combined with a CT arthrogram for the evaluation of chondral and/or labral tears or a femoral neck version scan. Note: This article aims to frame a...

CT knee (protocol)

The CT knee protocol serves as an examination for the bony assessment of the knee the femoral condyles or the tibial plateau and the proximal tibiofibular joint. It is often performed as a non-contrast study. It can also be combined with a CT arthrogram in cases of suspected internal derangement...

CT foot (protocol)

The CT foot protocol serves as an examination for the bony assessment of the fore and mid-foot and is almost always performed as a non-contrast study. It can also be combined with a CT ankle protocol or can be acquired as dual-energy CT depending on the clinical question. Note: This article aim...

CT ankle (protocol)

The CT ankle protocol serves as an examination for the bony assessment of the ankle and rearfoot and is almost always performed as a non-contrast study. It can be also combined with a CT arthrogram for the evaluation of chondral and osteochondral injuries or can encompass the whole foot in certa...

AO/OTA classification of proximal tibial fractures

The AO/OTA classification is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying proximal tibial fractures or proximal tibial end segment fractures. Like other fractures, they are divided into three groups subject to the severity and complexity of the respective injury 1: type A: extraartic...

Inflammatory arthritis

Inflammatory arthritides, also known as arthropathies, are a group of joint disorders associated with synovitis and synovial hyperplasia caused by an influx of inflammatory cells. Inflammatory arthritides might also show extra-articular inflammation such as tenosynovitis and enthesitis and might...

Bone erosion

Bone erosions, or simply, erosions, refer to focal bony defects in the subchondral bone plate or cortical bone and the adjacent trabecular bone. Unlike bone cysts, the cortical or subchondral bone is also affected. They are a feature seen in inflammatory arthritides and erosive osteoarthritis an...

Cartilage

Cartilage or cartilaginous tissue is a resilient and type of connective tissue of mesodermal origin that forms an integral part within the musculoskeletal system and as a structural component in other organs. Cartilage can be generally classified into the following main types: hyaline car...

Synovial folds

Synovial folds or synovial plicae are remnant duplications of synovium formed during embryonic development. They are of particular interest and commonly described in the knee, elbow and hip joint but can be also found in other joints 1-4. Terminology The term ‘plica’ is commonly used if a syn...

Synovial folds of the hip

Synovial folds or plicae of the hip are vestigial structures within the hip joint and include labral and ligamental plicae as well as the femoral retinacula. Gross anatomy The following synovial folds, plicae or retinacula have been described in the hip joint 1-5: femoral neck plicae or retin...

Articular cartilage

Articular cartilage refers to the cartilaginous connective tissue covering the bony surfaces of diarthrodial joints. Gross anatomy Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage and is composed of a low density of chondrocytes surrounded by an abundant extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix ...

Backfill

Backfill refers to intra-articular high signal intensity on T1 weighted images seen in axial spondylarthritis within the sacroiliac joint filling up excavated bone erosions 1. It has been characterized as a complete loss of the cortical bone within the sacroiliac joint at the anticipated locatio...

Rigid spine

A rigid spine is a condition that is characterized by the ossification and/or fusion of spinal segments thus leading to a change in biomechanics. The shock absorption capabilities of normal intervertebral discs, as well as the elasticity of ligaments, is eliminated thus making the rigid spine mo...

Discoligamentous injury

Discoligamentous injuries are severe spinal injuries in which the intervertebral disc and the intervertebral ligamentous structures are involved. They include cervical, thoracic or lumbar anterior tension band injuries as well as translational injuries. Terminology The term transdiscal fractur...

Ligamentum teres injury

Ligamentum teres injuries or ligamentum capitis femoris injuries are a cause of hip pain and comprise complete, partial, degenerative tears as well as bony avulsions of the ligamentum teres of the hip. Epidemiology Ligamentum teres injuries are considered a more common cause of hip pain and ar...

Fibular collateral ligament-biceps femoris bursa

The fibular collateral ligament-biceps femoris bursa is a small bursa separating the medial surface of the anterior arm of the long head biceps femoris tendon from the medially inserting lateral collateral ligament of the knee at the level of the fibular head. Gross anatomy The fibular collate...

Segmental endplate angles in spine injuries

Segmental endplate or segmental kyphosis angles include the monosegmental and bisegmental endplate angle as well as the vertebral compression angle and play a role in the stability assessment after spinal injuries. The following angles might be used 1-3: monosegmental endplate angle or Gardner...

Flexor-pronator mass injury

A flexor-pronator mass injury or common flexor-pronator muscle injury is a muscle injury most commonly a muscle tear or strain of flexor-pronator muscles of the elbow joint. Epidemiology A flexor-pronator mass injury is an uncommon injury seen in athletes practising throwing sports. It can rar...

Valgus instability of the elbow

Valgus instability of the elbow can develop as a result of ulnar collateral ligament injury either in the setting of chronic overuse or in the context of an acute or an acute-on-chronic injury. Epidemiology Valgus instability can be seen in athletes and less commonly in non-athletes. Risk fac...

Meniscofibular ligament

The meniscofibular ligament is a capsular ligament that connects the corpus of the lateral meniscus to the fibular head and provides stability to the posterolateral corner of the knee. Gross anatomy The meniscofibular has been shown to be present in up to 100% of cadaver studies 1,2. It consis...

Meniscocapsular ligament

The meniscocapsular ligament attaches the base of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus to the posterior joint capsule of the knee adjacent to the coronary ligament. Gross anatomy The meniscocapsular ligament is a collagenous structure of the posteromedial corner of the knee and connects t...

Distal semimembranosus tendon

The distal semimembranosus tendon, distal semimembranosus complex or distal semimembranosus muscle-tendon unit is a major musculotendinous structure of the posteromedial corner of the knee and an important dynamic stabilizer of the knee. Gross anatomy The semimembranosus tendon has a complex a...

Fabellofibular ligament

The fabellofibular ligament (FFL) or gastrocnemiofibular ligament is a ligamentous structure of the posterolateral corner of the knee and a static secondary stabilizer with morphological variability. Gross anatomy The fabellofibular ligament takes its course from the fabella and descends verti...

Common flexor origin of the elbow

The common flexor origin of the elbow refers to a common attachment of the following flexor-pronator muscles at the medial epicondyle of the distal humerus 1-3: pronator teres (PT) flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) The flexor carpi radialis (FCR) and palmaris lo...

Annular ligament of the elbow

The annular ligament is a part of the lateral collateral ligamentous complex of the elbow joint and a major stabilizer of the proximal radioulnar joint. Gross anatomy The annular ligament is located within the elbow joint and is one of four ligaments forming the lateral collateral ligamentous ...

Common extensor origin of the elbow

The common extensor origin of the elbow classically refers to the common tendon of the following forearm extensor muscles, which form a common footprint at the lateral epicondyle 1,2: extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) extensor digitorum communis (EDC) extensor digiti minimi (EDM) extenso...

Radial collateral ligament of the elbow

The radial collateral ligament (RCL), radial collateral ligament proper or lateral collateral ligament of the elbow is a static lateral stabilizer and a part of the lateral collateral ligamentous complex of the elbow. Gross anatomy The radial collateral ligament courses through the intertuberc...

Paratenon

The paratenon is a membrane-like areolar structure consisting of loose connective tissue found around extraarticular tendons without a synovial sheath including the Achilles tendon, quadriceps tendon or distal biceps tendon. It allows the tendon to move more freely acting as a gliding mechanism ...

Peroneus tendon injury

Peroneus tendon injuries are a common and frequently underdiagnosed spectrum of disorders seen in patients with lateral ankle pain. The following conditions can account as or are associated with peroneus tendon injuries 1-4: peroneal tendinosis/tendinopathy peroneus brevis tendon tears p...

Fibularis longus tendon tear

Fibularis longus tendon tears can be partial or complete, longitudinal or transverse, acute or chronic, and might be associated with tendon instability. Epidemiology Fibularis longus tendon tears are a frequent cause of lateral foot and ankle pain 1-3. However, they are less common than fibula...

Popliteus injury

Popliteus injuries or injuries of the popliteus musculotendinous complex occur within the scope of posterolateral corner injuries of the knee and include avulsions, complete and partial tendinous and myotendinous tears as well as muscle injuries. Epidemiology Popliteus injuries can be found in...

Popliteomeniscal fascicles

The popliteomeniscal fascicles (PMF) are synovial ligamentous structures connecting the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the popliteus tendon thus stabilizing the lateral meniscus. They form the popliteal hiatus and include the following: anteroinferior popliteomeniscal fascicle poste...

Popliteus tendon

The popliteus tendon is part of the popliteus musculotendinous complex together with the popliteus muscle and the popliteofibular ligament and constitutes a part of the posterolateral corner of the knee. Gross anatomy The popliteus tendon ascends the posterolateral corner of the knee in a supe...

Snapping biceps femoris tendon

Snapping biceps femoris tendon or snapping biceps femoris syndrome is an infrequent pathology where the distal biceps tendon dislocates over the fibular head and relocates painfully. Epidemiology Snapping biceps femoris tendon is considered an uncommon entity 1-4. Associations It has been as...

Distal biceps femoris tendon

The distal biceps femoris tendon is a complex musculotendinous unit that connects the long and short head of the biceps femoris muscle to the fibular head, the superolateral portion of the lateral tibial condyle and the lateral and anterior fascia of the lower leg. Gross anatomy Both heads of ...

Cortical button

Cortical buttons, suspensory cortical buttons or suture buttons are surgical implants used in conjunction with sutures for the repair of ligament and/or tendon injuries, including biceps tendon rupture, pectoralis major injury, acromioclavicular injuries, syndesmotic injuries and anterior crucia...

Suture anchor

Suture anchors or bone anchors are surgical implants used for the attachment of soft tissues to bone e.g. ruptured tendons and ligaments. Suture anchors are usually composed of the anchor, a suture and the interface between anchor and suture called 'eyelet'. They come in different types or confi...

LaPrade classification system of meniscal root tears

The LaPrade classification system of meniscal root tears characterizes meniscal root tears based on morphology. The system was originally conceived based on arthroscopy 1,2. Usage It has to be emphasized that this is a primarily arthroscopic classification system, however, the same morphologi...

Tendon

Tendons are flexible and inelastic bands of strong fibrous connective tissue that transmit force from muscle to bone and form an integral part of the musculoskeletal system. They can be intraarticular, coated in a tendon sheath or remain extrasynovial, coated by paratenon. Gross anatomy Tendon...

Bone tunnel

Bone tunnels, osseous or transosseous tunnels are cylindrical iatrogenic holes or channels in bone created by surgeons by drilling or reaming. They usually serve as a fixation site or introductory channel for surgical implants and/or devices 1-3. Radiographic features Approximately 6 weeks aft...

Distal biceps tendon reconstruction

Distal biceps tendon reconstruction is an uncommon surgical procedure used to restore elbow flexion and/or supination power in the situation of a chronic distal biceps tendon rupture. Indications The classical indication for distal biceps tendon reconstruction is a chronic biceps tendon injury...

Distal biceps tendon repair

Distal biceps tendon repair refers to the direct surgical fixation of an injured distal biceps tendon to restore elbow flexion and/or supination power and is the surgical procedure of choice in the acute setting. Indications Main indications for distal biceps tendon repair include the followi...

Lacertus fibrosus

The lacertus fibrosus or distal bicipital aponeurosis is an aponeurotic structure originating and enveloping the distal biceps tendon as well as the proximal flexor muscle group of the forearm. Gross anatomy The lacertus fibrosus has been described as a multilayered structure with a superficia...

Distal biceps tendon

The distal biceps tendon (DBT) is a strong duplicated extrasynovial tendon that connects the distally variably interlinked long and short head of the biceps brachii muscle to the bicipital tuberosity of the proximal radius. Besides the distal biceps tendon, the biceps muscle is distally attached...

Florid reactive periostitis

Florid reactive periostitis is a rare benign lesion, included in a group of reactive bone and soft tissue lesions that create a frequent diagnostic problem. Epidemiology Florid reactive periostitis occurring often in the 2nd and 3rd decade of life with a male to female ratio of 1 to 1.5, eve...

Retropectoralis minor space

Retropectoralis minor space or subpectoralis minor space is the lateral most space traversed by brachial plexus and adjacent artery and vein as they pass from the axilla to the thorax, and is thus a location of potential compression leading to thoracic outlet syndrome. It is best seen in the s...

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (nTOS) is the most common cause of thoracic outlet syndrome accounting for approximately 90% of cases. It is caused by compression of the brachial plexus as it passes between the scalenus muscles, over the first rib and posteroinferior to the clavicle before e...

Musculoskeletal x-ray: ABCDE (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Musculoskeletal x-ray review is a key competency for medical students, junior doctors, and other allied health professionals. Using A, B, C, D, E is a helpful and systematic method for musculoskeletal x-ray review: A: anat...

Honeycomb sterna

Honeycomb sterna are considered as a rare developmental variant of the sternum, resulting from unfused lateral ossification centers of the sternebrae, which gives a honeycomb configuration of the mesosternum. Usually asymptomatic and discovered incidentally during a routine exam of the chest.

Synovial folds of the elbow

Synovial folds, synovial plicae or synovial fringes of the elbow are structures found within the elbow joint. Their function remains unknown, however, there are theories that they might have a cushioning or load dispersing effect. Occasionally they can cause symptoms. Gross anatomy Like the sy...

Proximal tibiofibular joint dislocation

Proximal tibiofibular joint dislocations (PTJD) are a form of proximal tibiofibular joint injury involving a separation of the fibular head from the respective articular surface of the lateral tibial condyle. Epidemiology Proximal tibiofibular joint dislocations are rare and account for less t...

Posterior proximal tibiofibular ligament

The posterior proximal tibiofibular ligaments form a part of the proximal tibiofibular joint capsule and belong to the supporting structures of the proximal tibiofibular joint. Gross anatomy The posterior proximal tibiofibular ligaments are thinner and less strong than the anterior proximal ti...

Anterior proximal tibiofibular ligaments

The anterior proximal tibiofibular ligaments belong to the supporting structures of the proximal tibiofibular joint and the tibiofibular joint capsule. Gross anatomy The anterior proximal tibiofibular ligaments usually consist of up to four bundles, one located superiorly and two at a mid-leve...

Subarticular zone stenosis

Subarticular zone stenosis is a form of spinal stenosis where there is narrowing of the subarticular zone, including the lateral recess. This may occur with or without other forms of spinal stenosis. Pathology Nerve root compression at the lateral recess can occur in two morphological forms: ...

Chronic ACL deficiency

Chronic ACL deficiency is a long term adverse outcome that can result from an untreated ACL injury. Patients often experience an unstable knee. They often result in or are associated with meniscal injury (medial more than lateral) and chondral damage 1-4. See also mucoid degeneration of ACL

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