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Umbilical cord coiling index

Umbilical cord coiling index is defined in terms of the number of 360-degree spiral course of umbilical vessels. This can be described in two main ways: the number of coils per one centimeter of length of cord. Normocoiled: one coil for a length of five centimeters. Hypercoiled: more than one...

Forked umbilical cord

Forked umbilical cord is a rare anomaly of the umbilical cord, which can be detected on an antenatal scan. The umbilical cord splits into two cords and contains three vessels in each of the bifurcated cords. This anomaly is seen associated with monochorionic twins. Radiographic features Ultras...

Congenital limb amputation

Congenital limb amputation is the absence of a fetal limb or part of a limb that usually occurs due to disruption of vascular supply. Epidemiology Congenital amputations occur in 0.5 (range 0.03-1) per 1000 live births 2. Pathology They are slightly more common in the upper limb (60%) than ...

Erb palsy

Erb palsy, also known as brachial plexus birth palsy, is a form of obstetric brachial plexus injury as a result of complications during delivery. Clinical presentation The most common cause is due to excessive lateral traction or stretching of the fetal head and neck in opposite directions du...

Simple hydropic degeneration of the placenta

Simple hydropic degeneration of the placenta is a form of hydropic degeneration of the placenta that can occur in a first trimester pregnancy loss. In this situation, the serum beta HCG will tend to be low and tend to show a decline with repeat testing. The overall sonographic appearance can va...

Roberts sign (fetal demise)

Roberts sign refers to the presence of a gas shadow within the heart or the greater vessels, in cases of fetal death in utero. It is a rare sign caused by postmortem blood degeneration, usually seen 1-2 days after death; and may be seen as early as 12 hours. History and etymology First describ...

Umbilical cord

The umbilical cord is a fetal organ that connects the placenta to the developing fetus and is a vital passage for nutrients, oxygen and waste products to and from the fetus. Gross anatomy The umbilical cord inserts into the center of the placental bulk and into the fetus at the umbilicus. Vari...

Placenta

The placenta is a fetal organ of pregnancy, responsible for providing nutrition and oxygen to the fetus as well as excretory functions. Embryology Placenta is formed from fetal and maternal components 2: maternal component: decidua placentalis is the inner portion of the placenta, which is f...

Placental abruption in the exam

Getting a film with placental abruption (premature separation of placenta from uterus) in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound show a single live fetus with gestational age of 27 weeks. The cervix i...

Anembryonic pregnancy in the exam

Getting a film with anembryonic pregnancy in the radiology fellowship examination is one of the many exam set-pieces that the candidate must be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound shows a uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is at least 25 m...

Perigestational hemorrhage in the exam

Getting a film with pregestational hemorrhage in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal (TV) pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is 20 mm in TV study with a single, li...

Pregnancy of uncertain viability

Pregnancy of uncertain viability (PUV) is a term given to an intrauterine pregnancy in a situation where there are not enough criteria (usually on ultrasound grounds) to confidently categorize an intrauterine pregnancy as either viable or a failed pregnancy. Radiographic features Ultrasound ...

Floating head appearance

A floating head appearance refers to imaging features observed typically on antenatal ultrasound with certain skeletal dysplasias such as achondrogenesis. Against the background of a poorly-mineralized spine, a normally ossified skull is seen giving an impression of a floating head.

Bunch of grapes sign (disambiguation)

Bunch of grapes sign refers to the imaging appearance of multiple cystic spaces or lesions and it has been described for multiple pathologies: bunches of grapes sign (hepatic abscess) 8 bunch of grapes sign (botryoid rhabdomyosarcoma) 5 bunch of grapes sign (bronchiectasis) 3 ...

Sakati-Nyhan syndrome

The Sakati-Nyhan syndrome, also known as Sakati-Nyhan-Tisdale syndrome or acrocephalosyndactly type III, is an extremely rare type of acrocephalopolysyndactyly. Its main features include: craniofacial defects congenital limb abnormalities congenital heart defects History and etymology It w...

Goodman syndrome

Goodman syndrome is a type of acrocephalopolysyndactyly (often considered type IV). It is an extremely rare genetic disorder characterized by marked malformations of the head and face, abnormalities of the hands and feet, and congenital heart disease. The syndrome is inherited as an autosomal re...

Ectrodactyly-ectrodermal dysplasia-clefting syndrome

Ectrodactyly-ectrodermal dysplasia-clefting (EEC) syndrome is a rare genetic syndrome that has high clinical variability but typically comprises of the triad of ectrodactyly +/- syndactyly 1 +/- polydactyly 5 ectrodermal dysplasia facial clefts: cleft lip and/or palate Pathology Genetics ...

Femur fibula ulna syndrome

Femur fibula ulna (FFU) syndrome is a rare congenital non-lethal anomaly which is classically characterized by unilateral limb defects of the femur and fibula of one limb followed by a contralateral defect in the ulna 2. There have however been several variations described including bilateral in...

SHORT syndrome

SHORT syndrome refers to an acronym which primarily comprises of the following features: S: short stature H: hyperextensibility of joints and/or inguinal hernia O: ocular depression R: Rieger anomaly T: teething delay In addition to these there can be numerous associated minor features whi...

Uterine artery embolization: MRI assessment

Uterine artery embolization (UAE) is used as an alternative to hysterectomy in selected patients and MRI assessment is key in allowing not only pre-procedure assessment but also assessing post-procedural outcome. For a general discussion of the underlying condition refer to the article on ute...

Camptodactyly arthropathy coxa vara pericarditis syndrome

Camptodactyly arthropathy coxa vara pericarditis (CACP) syndrome is a rare condition principally characterized by congenital or early-onset camptodactyly and childhood-onset non-inflammatory arthropathy coxa vara deformity or other dysplasia associated with progressive hip disease pericardit...

Parturition-induced pelvic instability

Parturition-induced pelvic instability is a rare condition seen in women following vaginal delivery. Epidemiology The incidence of symphyseal rupture after vaginal delivery ranges from one in 600 to one in 30,000 deliveries 1. Predisposing factors include multiparity, complicated delivery, ...

Adams-Oliver syndrome

The Adams-Oliver syndrome (AOS) is a rare disorder characterized by aplasia cutis congenita (missing hair and/or skin) and variable degrees of terminal transverse limb defects. It may be accompanied by orofacial and cardiac malformations 6. Associations polymicrogyria: may be associated with a...

Robinow syndrome

Robinow syndrome is a rare heterogeneous genetic disorder with at least two distinct forms. Terminology Fetal face syndrome and Robinow-Silverman syndrome are the other synonyms for this genetic disorder. Formerly it was known as costovertebral segmentation defect with mesomelia 8. Epidemiolo...

Congenital granular cell myoblastoma

A congenital granular cell myoblastoma (also known as congenital epulis) is a very rare benign tumor which classically presents in the fetal-neonatal population. Epidemiology It occurs almost exclusively in females when it presents in the fetal-neonatal population although no such predilection...

CHILD syndrome

CHILD (congenital hemidysplasia with ichthyosiform erythroderma and limb defects) syndrome comprises: Ch: congenital hemidysplasia I: ichthyosiform erythroderma develops at or shortly after birth unilateral erythema and scaling, with a distinct demarcation in the middle of the trunk 2 hair ...

Acheiria

Acheiria refers to absence of one or both hands and can occur in a number of situations, including: amniotic band syndrome: particularly if unilateral Cornelia de Lange syndrome 1 fetal hydantoin syndrome 2 Epidemiology Rare defect occurring in 1:65 000 live births. See also absent thumb...

Fetal rib fractures

Fetal rib fractures can be caused by certain skeletal dysplasias. These include: osteogenesis imperfecta: type II - one of the classical causes of fetal rib fractures achondrogenesis: type Ia - Houston-Harris sub type

Fetal limb bowing

Fetal limb bowing may be a feature of skeletal dysplasia, particularly if it is severe. A mild degree of lateral bowing of the femur can occur as part of normal variation. Conditions associated with fetal limb bowing include: campomelic dysplasia 1 thanatophoric dysplasia 2: particularly type...

Fetal atrial fibrillation

Fetal atrial fibrillation is a type of fetal tachyarrhythmia and usually has an atrial rate of 400 beats per minute and a completely irregular ventricular rhythm. Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound - echocardiography The atrial contractions are usually too faint to be detected by M M...

Barth syndrome

Barth syndrome (BTHS), also known as 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type II, is an extremely rare X-linked multisystem disorder that is usually diagnosed in infancy. Epidemiology Barth syndrome has an estimated prevalence of 1 in 300,000-400,000 live births. Clinical presentation It is characte...

Fetal right ventricular enlargement

Fetal right ventricular (RV) enlargement is an infrequently encountered situation in antenatal imaging. Pathology The right ventricle is the dominant ventricle during in utero development. Right ventricular enlargement can occur with a number of cardiac as well as non-cardiac anomalies. cardi...

Conotruncal cardiac anomalies

Conotruncal heart defects are a group of congenital cardiovascular anomalies involving the outflow tracts and great vessels. They are a leading cause of symptomatic cyanotic cardiac disease diagnosed in utero. Epidemiology They may account for up to a fifth of all congenital cardiac anomalies ...

Four chamber cardiac view (fetal)

The four chamber cardiac view is an important and routinely performed view in both fetal echocardiography as well as on a standard second trimester anatomy scan. Detectable pathology The four chamber view can only detect some of the congenital cardiac anomalies (~64% according to one study 2) ...

Cenani-Lenz syndactyly

Cenani-Lenz syndactyly (CLS) is a very syndrome primarily characterized by: syndactyly/oligodactly: syndactyly is often complete and gives a spoon hand type appearance radio-ulnar synostoses Pathology Genetics It carries an autosomal recessive inheritance. Etymology It was first described...

Spontaneous rupture of membranes

Spontaneous rupture of membranes (SROM) refers to rupture of fetal membranes occurring on its own (in contrast with artificial rupture of membranes). When this occurs before ~37 weeks in gestation, it is then termed spontaneous premature rupture of membranes (SPROM) which is the usual cause of p...

Second trimester ultrasound scan

The second trimester scan is a routine ultrasound examination in many countries that is primarily used to assess fetal anatomy and detect the presence of any fetal anomalies. The second trimester extends from 13 weeks and 0 days to 27 weeks and 6 days of gestation although the majority of thes...

Marshall-Smith syndrome

Marshall-Smith syndrome (MSS) is a rare genetic syndrome primarily comprising the triad of facial dysmorphism, failure to thrive and accelerated osseous maturation 5. Many cases, however, have a wider clinical spectrum. Clinical presentation general fetal macrosomia failure to thrive skelet...

Postaxial polydactyly

Postaxial polydactyly refers to polydactyly where the additional digit is on the ulnar margin of the hand, or lateral to the 5th (little) toe. Epidemiology Postaxial polydactyly is more common than preaxial polydactyly, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 3000 5. Associations Postaxial polyd...

Dominant ovarian follicle

A dominant ovarian follicle refers to the follicle that enlarges to release an ovum during a menstural cycle. Usually approximately 10 Graafian follicles begin to mature where one becomes a dominant follicle and the rest become atretic ovarian follicles. After release of the ovum the remainder o...

Sonographic values in obstetrics and gynecology

Obstetric and gynecological ultrasound is rampant with numerous cut-off values. Some of these get revised over the years. The following list is a useful aid to refer to and revise. 1 mm rate of increase of a mean sac diameter per day in early pregnancy 2 mm generally accepted value for a thi...

Fetal cardiac tumors

Fetal cardiac tumors refer to primary cardiac tumors that can present in the in utero population. Epidemiology Fetal cardiac tumors are rare; the prevalence, reported from autopsy studies of patients of all ages, varies from 0.0017-0.28 % 2. Pathology Known cardiac tumor types that present ...

Fetal sinus bradycardia

Fetal sinus bradycardia is a subtype of fetal bradycardia where the fetal heart rate is abnormally slow (<100 bpm) but runs at the regular rate with sinus rhythm. Pathology Associations congenital long QT syndrome 1 maternal anti Ro antibodies 2-3

Thalidomide embryopathy

Thalidomide embryopathy refers to a syndrome resulting from in utero exposure to thalidomide, and is characterized by multiple fetal anomalies. Fetal exposure to thalidomide occurred primarily from 1957 to 1961, when it was used as a treatment for nausea in pregnant women. Epidemiology Expos...

Platyspondyly

Platyspondyly is a radiographic sign and refers to flattened vertebral bodies throughout the axial skeleton. Pathology Associations Platyspondyly can be feature of many conditions which include: severe Gaucher disease 1 metatrophic dysplasia Morquio syndrome osteogenesis imperfecta Rober...

Metatropic dysplasia

Metatropic dysplasia refers to a rare subgroup of the skeletal dysplasias. It is part of the wider category of rhizomelic dwarfism. Disorders in this group include: fibrochondrogenesis lethal metatropic dysplasia (type 2) or hyperchondrogenesis lethal hyperplastic metatropic dysplasia (type 1...

Frontal bossing

Frontal bossing is a calvarial radiographic feature where the front of the skull appears protruding anteriorly. It is best appreciated on a sagittal or lateral image. Pathology This feature can be seen in many conditions (in alphabetical order): 18q syndrome acromegaly achondroplasia ß-tha...

Cloverleaf skull (craniosynostosis)

Cloverleaf skull, also known as kleeblattschädel syndrome or deformity, refers to a type of severe craniosynostosis that gives the skull a cloverleaf shape. It is very rare, with less than 130 case reports globally. It typically results from intrauterine premature closure of the sagittal, corona...

Non-visualization of the fetal gallbladder

Non-visualization of the fetal gallbladder is often a transient finding and in most cases, the gallbladder can be eventually detected. However non-visualization can be rarely associated with certain pathological conditions. Associations cystic fibrosis aneuploidy agenesis of the gallbladder ...

Artificial rupture of membranes

An artificial rupture of membranes (AROM) is a procedure that can be used for the induction of labor. Procedure A sterile, plastic, thin hook is brushed against the membranes just inside the cervix (termed a membrane sweep) This causes the fetal head to move down against the cervix, usually r...

Fetal colonic dilatation

Fetal colonic dilatation specifically refers to dilatation of the fetal colon - large bowel This can occur in a number of situations anal atresia anorectal atresia Hirschsprung disease See also fetal bowel dilatation

Absent fetal stomach on ultrasound (differential)

Non-visualization of the fetal stomach on ultrasound can occur with various physiological as well as pathological processes. It becomes a significant sonographic observation >14 weeks of gestation (about the time the fetus begins to swallow). Causes include: physiological emptying: transient ...

Large loop excision of the transformation zone

Large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) is a gynecological procedure. It is currently one of the most commonly used approaches to treat high grade cervical dysplasia - cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.

Fetal pericardial teratoma

Fetal pericardial teratomas are rare pericardial teratomas that present in utero. They are an uncommon primary cardiac tumor occurring in a fetus. Pathology It is a type of germ cell tumor and arises from pluripotent cells derived from all three germinal layers. In contrast to ovarian teratoma...

Periurethral cystic lesions

There are several periurethral cystic lesions. These include: female genitourinary tract: vaginal cysts Mullerian cyst Gartner duct cyst epidermal inclusion cyst of the vagina Skene duct cyst Bartholin gland cyst endometrial cyst of perineal-vulval-vaginal region male genitourinary trac...

Mixed gonadal dysgenesis

Mixed gonadal dysgenesis (MGD) is a type of gonadal dysgenesis characterized by gonadal asymmetry, and/or sex chromosomal mosaicism, as well as retained Müllerian ducts. Pathology Depending on the chromosomal composition, patients may have testes and/or streak gonads. Genetics affected indiv...

Congenital hypothyroidism

Congenital hypothyroidism (CHT), previously known as cretinism, can be of thyroidal or central (hypothalamic/pituitary) origin and can have a widely diverse molecular etiology. Clinical presentation Most children are asymptomatic at birth and are diagnosed after screening. In untreated congeni...

Amniotic bands

Amniotic bands refer to free-floating blind-ending amnion with an intact chorionic membrane. In certain situations, they lead to amniotic band syndrome. They should not be confused with amniotic shelves which refer to the presence of amnion folding around pre-existing uterine adhesions. Some adv...

Abdominoschisis

Abdominoschisis (plural: abdominoschises) refers to a split or defect in the abdominal wall. Some authors use the term synonymously with a gastroschisis. When the defect continues into the thoracic region it is termed a thoracoabdominoschisis. A large abdominoschisis is considered part of the li...

Fetal intracranial hemorrhage

Fetal intracranial hemorrhage may occur either within the cerebral ventricles, subdural space or infratentorial fossa. Pathology Hemorrhages can occur in a number of situations: mechanical trauma, e.g. maternal abdominal blunt or birth trauma severe fetal hypoxia background fetal thrombocyt...

Fetal brain tumors

Fetal brain tumors are uncommon and tends to have very different pathological spectrum than that observed in adults; in order of decreasing frequency: fetal intracranial teratoma: most common tumor by far astrocytoma/glioblastoma: next most common adamantinomatous craniopharyngioma primitive...

Rachischisis totalis

Rachischisis totalis, also known as complete spina bifida, refers to a severe form of spina bifida where there is a cleft through the entire spine. Pathology There is often a severe or complete defect of the neural tube involving the entire spine from the cervical region through to the sacrum....

Cystic renal dysplasia

Cystic renal dysplasia refers to a subgroup of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract characterized by the dysplastic renal parenchyma and formation of cysts. The most severe form is multicystic dysplastic kidney, in which functional renal parenchyma is absent and only undifferenti...

Fetal intracranial calcification

Fetal intracranial calcification refers to intracranial calcification detected in utero. This can arise from a number of pathologies which include: in utero infections fetal toxoplasmosis infection: calcification tends to be randomly distributed fetal cytomegalovirus infection1: calcificatio...

Dorsal cyst of holoprosencephaly

The dorsal cyst of holoprosencephaly is a large cerebrospinal fluid cavity present in holoprosencephaly that occupies the area above the dorsocaudal aspect of the diencephalon. This communicates directly with the prosencephalic, telencephalic, or diencephalic ventricle. This cavity usually abuts...

Fetal interhemispheric cyst

A fetal interhemispheric cyst refers to an interhemispheric cyst diagnosed in utero. It is seen as a cystic collection located in the interhemispheric fissure, with or without communication with the ventricular system. Pathology Associations agenesis of the corpus callosum: strong association...

Fetal schizencephaly

Fetal schizencephaly refers to schizencephaly diagnosed in utero. Usually only open lips types can be diagnosed antenatally. Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound may show a unilateral or bilateral defect extending from the pial surface to the ventricular wall there may be other feature...

Facial clefts

Facial clefts comprise a wide spectrum of pathologies that result from failure of fusion in the facial region during the embryonic/early fetal period. The result is a gap in the fetal face. These clefts can affect the lip, philtrum, alveolus, and hard and soft palate to varying degrees. Entiti...

Diabetic embryopathy

Diabetic embryopathy refers to a spectrum of fetal anomalies that precipitate when the mother has background type I diabetes mellitus. The fetus may develop many of the fetal conditions associated with maternal diabetes although strictly speaking the anomalies should only include those that star...

Midfacial hypoplasia

Midfacial hypoplasia is a type of congenital facial anomaly. Pathology Midfacial hypoplasia can be a feature of a number of congenital syndromic anomalies: Antley-Bixler syndrome chromosome 1p36 deletion syndrome 2 chromosome 18q deletion syndrome Crouzon syndrome fetal alcohol syndrome ...

Short maxillary length

A short maxillary length can result from many congenital and acquired causes. If seen in an antenatal ultrasound scan, it is often considered to have a high association with trisomy 21 1. Congenital conditions Many conditions that can cause midfacial hypoplasia will result in a short maxillar...

Postpartum hemorrhage

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) refers to uterine bleeding after delivery and remains one of the major worldwide causes of maternal mortality. Epidemiology Risk factors prolonged labor polyhydramnios previous cesarean section antepartum hemorrhage recent PV bleeding twin pregnancy uterine f...

Pre-term labor

Pre-term labor refers to spontaneous delivery of the fetus prior to 37 weeks of gestation. This is regardless of estimated fetal weight. Radiographic assessment Ultrasound Sonographic markers shortened cervical length presence of cervical funneling dilatation or internal cervical os: consi...

Fetal middle cerebral arterial peak systolic velocity

The fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) peak systolic velocity (PSV) is an important parameter in fetal MCA Doppler assessment. Measurement The fetal MCA should be sampled~2 mm from the origin of the fetal internal carotid artery and the angle of the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood...

Hypertensive states in pregnancy

There are several hypertensive states that can manifest in pregnancy. They include: gestational hypertension - pregnancy induced hypertension (PIH) pre eclampsia eclampsia Epidemiology They may be commoner in young primigravid as well as older multiparous women. Pathology Associations a...

Fetal hydrothorax

A fetal hydrothorax refers to fluid in the fetal thoracic cavity. In many cases it represents a fetal pleural effusion. In selected cases it can be treated by an in utero thoracocentesis or a formation of an in utero pleuro-amniotic shunt. See also primary fetal hydrothorax

Decidual reaction

A decidual reaction is a feature seen in very early pregnancy where there is thickening of the endometrium around the gestational sac, which is seen as an echogenic rim on ultrasound. A thin decidual reaction of <2 mm is considered one of the features suggestive of an anembryonic pregnancy 2. A ...

Embryo

An embryo (plural: embryos) is the term given to the precursor of a fetus and in humans the embryonic period is usually considered to be between the first (1st) and the eighth (8th) week (eleventh week according to some reports) of development after fertilisation. The term "fetal pole" is someti...

Isthmic ectopic pregnancy

An isthmic ectopic pregnancy is a subtype of tubal ectopic pregnancy an accounts for ~12% of such cases. According to one study, the rate of tubal wall disruption was higher than with an ampullary ectopic pregnancy, suggesting that in an isthmic ectopic pregnancy, the trophoblast penetrates the ...

Ampullary ectopic pregnancy

Ampullary ectopic pregnancy is the commonest type of tubal ectopic pregnancy and accounts for ~70% of such cases. According to one study, the disruption of the tubal wall was less than as in isthmic ectopic pregnancy 2.

Femur sparing intrauterine growth restriction

Femur sparing intrauterine growth restriction is considered by some authors as a particular type of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) 1. In this type, the femoral length is the only standard fetal biometric parameter unaffected while all others are reduced.

Fetal transverse cerebellar diameter

In obstetric imaging, the fetal transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD) is often measured as an additional fetal biometric parameter. It is measured as the maximal diameter between the cerebellar hemispheres on an axial scan. The value of the transverse cerebellar diameter in mm's is considered rou...

Cephalic index

The cephalic index (CI) is a ratio/value calculated using two fetal biometric parameters which are the occipitofrontal diameter (OFD) and the biparietal diameter (BPD). It is measured with the cursor placed on the outer edge to the outer edge of the cranial bone. It is calculated as: cephalic ...

Placental septal cyst

Placental septal cysts are placental cysts typically located in the mid-placenta. It forms between the cotyledons of the placenta. The cysts contain gelatinous material and are usually 5-10 mm in diameter. They may be present in 10-20% of placentas from full-term uncomplicated pregnancies.

Placental calcification

Placental calcification has been considered a manifestation of “aging” of the placenta. It commonly increases with gestational age. Delayed placental calcification maternal diabetes Rh sensitization Accelerated placental calcification normal placental maturity maternal thrombotic disorder...

Placental infarction

Placental infarction refers to a localized area of ischemic villous necrosis. It is a significant cause of placental insufficiency. Epidemiology A localized infarction can occur in up to ~25% of all placental pathologies and approximately 5-20% of all gestations (on average 12.5%) 6. Pathol...

Aneuploidy

Aneuploidy refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes, and is a type of chromosomal abnormality. There are large number potential aneuploidic anomalies. The most common three in obstetric practice are: trisomy 21: commonest aneuploidic anomaly trisomy 18 trisomy 13

Transient abnormal myelopoiesis

Transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM) is a phenomenon that can happen in the fetuses or neonates with trisomy 21. The condition can mimic leukemia. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~10% of newborns with trisomy 21 3. Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound In the context of kno...

Amnioreduction

An amnioreduction is a procedure where an amniocentesis is performed for intentional reduction of amniotic fluid volume. This is sometimes performed in the context of extreme polyhydramnios (particularly in the recipient twin in twin to twin transfusion syndrome).

Embedded intrauterine contraceptive device

An embedded intrauterine contraceptive device is a situation where there is an abnormally-positioned IUCD within the endometrium or myometrium; however without an extension through the serosa. The intrauterine contraceptive device should be removed in this situation. An intrauterine contraceptiv...

Female pseudohermaphroditism

Female pseudohermaphroditism is a form of disorder of gender development. Pathology Patients with female pseudohermaphroditism have female internal genitalia and female karyotype (46 XX) with various degrees of external genitalia virilization. Causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): c...

Placental mosaicism

Placental mosaicism is a situation where there discrepancy between the chromosomal makeup of the cells in the placenta. According to one study fetal mosaicism was found in 50% of cases with placental mosaicism. When the fetal cells are normal in chromosomal composition, this is then known as con...

Twin anemia polycythemia sequence

Twin anemia polycythemia sequence (TAPS) is considered a variant of the twin to twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS). Epidemiology TAPS may occur spontaneously in up to 5% of monochorionic twins and may also develop after incomplete laser treatment in twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome cases 2. Pa...

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