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Abdominal ectopic pregnancy

Abdominal ectopic pregnancies are an extremely rare type of ectopic pregnancy. Epidemiology They are thought to represent ~1% of all ectopic pregnancies 6 with an estimated incidence of 1:1000-10,000 births. Pathology It is often thought that they most frequently result from a tubal rupture ...

Incomplete miscarriage

Incomplete miscarriage is a term given to miscarriage where there are retained products of conception still within the uterus. Radiographic features Ultrasound Ultrasound appearance is variable, ranging from visible fetal parts to a mass of mixed echogenicity. The presence of a prominent vasc...

Anhydramnios

Anhydramnios is a term where there is a complete or near-complete lack of amniotic fluid (sometimes referred to as "liquor volume"). Pathology Anhydramnios can result in a number of situations: fetal renal tract anomalies Potter syndrome (bilateral renal agenesis): most common large ureter...

Fowler syndrome

Fowler syndrome, also known as proliferative vasculopathy and hydranencephaly-hydrocephaly syndrome (PVHH), is a rare inherited condition. Terminology Not to be confused with Fowler syndrome of urinary retention, a condition caused by primary failure of urethral sphincter relaxation resulting ...

Fetal akinesia sequence

A fetal akinesia sequence is an event that can occur with a lack of fetal movement (fetal akinesia). This results in: fetal joint contractures: arthrogryposis pulmonary hypoplasia polyhydramnios 3 craniofacial anomalies 3 micrognathia 6 Epidemiology The estimated prevalence is at ~1 in 3...

Echogenic fetal lung lesions

Echogenic fetal lung lesions on antenatal ultrasound can be detected in a number of situations. They include: Airway obstructions: lung are often enlarged and echogenic bilaterally congenital high airways obstruction syndrome (CHAOS) tracheal atresia congenital tracheal stenosis laryngeal a...

Congenital high airway obstruction syndrome

Congenital high airway obstruction syndrome or sequence (CHAOS) refers to a rare, often lethal, congenital laryngotracheal condition and is primarily characterized by obstruction to the fetal upper airway. Epidemiology Associations Fraser syndrome Pathology CHAOS can be of three possible ty...

Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines

Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines, previously known as LEOPARD syndrome (LS), is a rare autosomal dominant RASopathy that has many similarities to Noonan syndrome. Clinical presentation Despite a change in formal name, the 'LEOPARD' acronym is still useful to summarize the clinical feat...

Fetal bradyarrhythmia

Fetal bradyarrhythmias refer to an abnormally low fetal heart rate (less than 100-110 beats per minute 3,7) as well as being irregular, i.e. irregular fetal bradycardia. Epidemiology Associations congenital cardiac anomalies: may be present in 50-60% of cases 2,3 maternal connective tissue d...

Fetal atrial flutter

Fetal atrial flutter is the second most common fetal tachyarrhythmia and can account for up to 30% of such cases 1,2. Clinical presentation As with other tachyarrhythmias, it is often detected in the 3rd trimester. Pathology It has a typical atrial rate of 300-600 beats per minute (bpm) and...

Fetal cardiomyopathy

Fetal cardiomyopathy refers to a very rare situation where a cardiomyopathy occurs in utero. It is often a diagnosis of exclusion where, by definition, there is an absence of an underlying congenital cardiac morphological anomaly. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is variable with the high ...

Herlyn-Werner-Wunderlich syndrome

Herlyn-Werner-Wunderlich (HWW) syndrome, is a rare anomaly characterized by Müllerian duct anomalies (MDA) associated with mesonephric duct anomalies 3. This entity is also known as obstructed hemivagina and ipsilateral renal anomaly (OHVIRA). It is not to be confused with the Wunderlich syndrom...

Perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia

Perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia (PLH) is the most severe form of hypophosphatasia. If untreated, it is lethal in all cases. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~1:100,000 live births. Pathology Genetics As with all hypophosphatasia cases, this is due to a mutation in chromosome 1q3...

Hypophosphatasia

Hypophosphatasia refers to a rare metabolic disorder characterized by deficient serum alkaline phosphatase activity. The effects of hypophosphatasia are primarily seen in the skeletal system. The condition has marked variation in clinical expression (see subtypes). Epidemiology The true incide...

Umbilical arterial Doppler assessment

Umbilical arterial (UA) Doppler assessment is used in surveillance of fetal well-being in the third trimester of pregnancy. Abnormal umbilical artery Doppler is a marker of placental insufficiency and consequent intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) or suspected pre-eclampsia. Umbilical arter...

Congenital cervical teratoma

Congenital cervical teratoma refers to a teratoma arising in the cervical region. They are thought to account for ~3% of teratomas in childhood/infancy 3. Epidemiology The estimated occurrence in neonates is ~1:20,000-40,000 live births 8. Clinical presentation Most tumors are diagnosed at b...

Absent ductus venosus

Agenesis of the ductus venosus (ADV) is a rare fetal vascular anomaly. Epidemiology According to the data obtained from the screening tests performed at 11-14 weeks of pregnancy, its incidence is reported to be 1/2500 12. Pathology In a large case series, Acherman et al. 13 defined five drai...

Umbilical venous flow assessment

Umbilical venous flow in the physiological situation comprises of a monophasic non-pulsatile flow pattern in the umbilical vein with a mean velocity of 10-15 cm/s. Since a normal umbilical vein supplies a continuous forward flow of oxygenated blood to the fetal heart, the presence of pulsatility...

Microphthalmia

Microphthalmia essentially means small eyes. It is characterized by a small eye within a small orbit. It can be unilateral or bilateral. It is sometimes defined as a globe with a total axial length that is at least two standard deviations below the mean for age. Pathology Microphthalmia can ha...

Fetal ductus venosus flow assessment

Fetal ductus venosus flow assessment can be useful in a number of situations in fetal ultrasound: first-trimester screening for aneuploidic anomalies second and third-trimester scanning when there are concerns regarding intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) fetal cardiac compromise Of all ...

Monochorionic monoamniotic twin pregnancy

A monochorionic monoamniotic (MCMA) twin pregnancy is a subtype of monozygotic twin pregnancy. These fetuses share a single chorionic sac, a single amniotic sac, and, in general, a single yolk sac. Epidemiology It accounts for the minority (~5%) of monozygotic twin pregnancies and ~1-2% of a...

Fetal adrenal hemorrhage

Fetal adrenal hemorrhage is an uncommon occurrence and must be differentiated from other lesions especially neuroblastoma. Pathology The exact cause of adrenal bleeding in utero is not well known at the time of writing. It has been associated with birth trauma (breech birth), perinatal asphyxi...

Fetal neuroblastoma

Fetal neuroblastoma is a type of congenital neuroblastoma (neuroblastoma arising in utero). Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~1 in 20,000 births. Pathology In the vast majority (~90%) of cases fetal neuroblastomas arise in the adrenal glands. They have been diagnosed as early as 19...

Monochorionic diamniotic twin pregnancy

A monochorionic diamniotic (MCDA) twin pregnancy is a subtype of monozygotic twin pregnancy. These fetuses share a single chorionic sac but have two amniotic sacs and two yolk sacs. Epidemiology It accounts for the vast majority (70-75%) of monozygotic twin pregnancies although only ~30% of a...

Overlapping fetal fingers

Overlapping fetal fingers is an antenatal ultrasound observation where the fetal fingers are seen to overlap each other. It may be seen seen with a concurrent clenched fetal hand. If the hand is clenched typically the 2nd finger is seen to overlap the 3rd 4. Pathology Associations a well re...

Hypoplastic nasal bone

Hypoplasia of the nasal bone refers to a sonographic observation where the fetal nasal bone appears smaller by varying degrees. There is a spectrum of nasal bone hypoplasia, at one end of which is the relatively easily identified absent nasal bone. The other end of the spectrum is considerably ...

Cord presentation

A cord presentation (also known as a funic presentation or obligate cord presentation) is a variation in the fetal presentation where the umbilical cord points towards the internal cervical os or lower uterine segment. It may be a transient phenomenon and is usually considered insignificant un...

Fetal hydronephrosis

Fetal hydronephrosis represents the abnormal dilatation of the fetal renal collecting system, with pelviureteric junction obstruction the most commonly encountered cause. Please, refer to the article on fetal pyelectasis for a dedicated discussion on this relatively common and usually benign f...

Amniotic shelf

Amniotic shelf (also known as an amniotic sheet 4) refers to a sheet like projection that can result from uterine synechiae that has been encompassed by the expanding chorion and amnion. In contrast to amniotic bands, they are not thought to be associated with any fetal deformity. Epidemiology...

Fetal parvovirus B19 infection

Fetal parvovirus B19 infection is a type of in utero infection. In certain cases it can lead to intrauterine fetal death. Pathology It was first reported to be associated with fetal death and hydrops fetalis in 1984. Human parvovirus B19 is the only known parvovirus virus pathogenic to human...

In utero infection

In utero infections, also known as congenital infections, can result from a vast number of etiological organisms and account for 2% to 3% of all congenital anomalies 4. TORCH group: in utero toxoplasmosis infection / congenital toxoplasmosis infection: congenital cerebral toxoplasmosis othe...

Shortened fetal humerus

A shortened fetal humerus is a morphological description and is usually defined when the humeral length falls below the 5th percentile or less than 0.9 as predicted by the biparietal diameter (BPD). It can occur in isolation or in association with a number of other anomalies. The humeral length...

Abnormal ductus venosus waveforms

Abnormal ductus venosus waveforms can arise in a number of conditions ranging from aneuploidy to vascular malformations and fetal tumors. "A wave" reversal can be seen in 5% of euploid fetuses 9. Pathology Abnormal waveforms in fetal ductus venosus flow assessment can occur in a number of situ...

VACTERL-H association

The VACTERL-H association is a rare non-random association which bears the features of the standard VACTERL association with added fetal hydrocephalus. Unlike the standard VACTERL association which is sporadic, the VACTERL-H is hereditary with both X-linked 3 and autosomal recessive 2 inheritan...

Fetal supraventricular tachycardia

Fetal supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) is considered the most common type of fetal tachyarrhythmia and can account for 60-90% of such cases. Pathology It has a typical ventricular rate of 230-280 beats per minute (bpm) 1 and is often associated with an accessory AV conduction pathway. There ...

Acardiac twin

An acardiac twin, also known a recipient twin, refers to the haemodynamically disadvantaged twin of a twin-pair in the setting of twin reversed arterial perfusion (TRAP) sequence. The acardiac twin undergoes secondary atrophy and is non-viable. Epidemiology Acardiac twinning is thought to affe...

Fetal cholelithiasis

Fetal cholelithiasis refers to formation of gallstones in utero. Epidemiology There occurrence is thought to be relatively common and is estimated at 1 in 300 pregnancies. They are almost always seen in the 3rd trimester 1. There may be slightly greater male predilection 7. Pathology Associ...

Ethmocephaly

Ethmocephaly refers to a rare type of midline cranio-facial anomaly that is characterized by the presence of extreme hypotelorism, arhinia and a midline proboscis. Pathology Associations holoprosencephaly 1,2: particularly alobar holoprosencephaly See also cebocephaly

Cebocephaly

Cebocephaly refers to a type of rare midline craniofacial anomaly where there is a single nostril (which usually ends blindly 6-7) with proboscis-like nose 8 and hypotelorism. Pathology Associations holoprosencephaly: particularly alobar holoprosencephaly trisomy 13 See also ethmocephaly ...

Arachnoid cyst (fetal presentation)

A fetal arachnoid cyst is term given when an arachnoid cyst is diagnosed in utero. For a general discussion of arachnoid cysts refer to the parent article. Pathology They can be classified as being primary or secondary 2. primary (congenital) arachnoid cysts: result from a benign accumulation...

Fetal hydrocephalus

Fetal hydrocephalus often refers to an extension of fetal ventriculomegaly where the ventricular dilatation is more severe. It is usually defined when the fetal lateral ventricular diameter is greater than 15 mm 1. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is 0.5-3 cases per 1000 live births. There...

Potter sequence

The Potter sequence is a constellation of findings demonstrated postnatally as a consequence of severe, prolonged oligohydramnios in utero. Clinical presentation It consists of: pulmonary hypoplasia: often severe and incompatible with life growth restriction (IUGR) abnormal facies (Potter f...

Urethral agenesis

Urethral agenesis (or urethral atresia) refers to a situation where there is a congenital absence of the urethra. It can be a cause of fetal obstructive uropathy. Pathology Associations prune belly syndrome 5 bladder agenesis 2 Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound May show a dilate...

Partial hydatidiform mole

Partial hydatidiform mole is a type of molar pregnancy, which in turn falls under the spectrum of gestational trophoblastic disease. Clinical presentation Clinical signs and symptoms such as abdominal pain, cramps of the lower abdomen and vaginal bleeding during pregnancy are common but non-s...

Short rib polydactyly syndrome

Short rib polydactyly syndrome(s) (SRPS) comprise a rare group of severe osteochondrodysplasias. There are four major recognized types present: type I: Saldino-Noonan type type II:: Majewski type type III: Verma-Naumoff type type IV: Beemer-Langer type There may also be other very rare type...

Fetal ovarian cyst

Fetal ovarian cysts refer to an ovarian cyst detected antenatally in a female fetus. They are relatively uncommon and are usually diagnosed in the 3rd trimester 5. Epidemiology From autopsy studies, they are found in up to 30% of fetuses 1. Pathology The exact etiology is not well known at t...

Uterine dehiscence

Uterine dehiscence is usually used to refer to the process of gradual myometrial rupture without a rupture of membranes. However, the term is used synonymously with uterine rupture by some authors. It is often described in the context of a cesarean section scar where it is also termed an incisio...

Wharton jelly

Wharton jelly refers to the gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord. Gross anatomy Wharton jelly is derived from extra-embryonic mesoderm and is largely made up of mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulphate) while containing smaller amounts of fibroblasts and macropha...

Long umbilical cord

A long umbilical cord has been variably defined. Considering the mean length of the umbilical cord at ~50-70 cm 1, a long cord in absolute terms is usually taken as one that is over 70 cm in length at term 1-3. Complications increased incidence of umbilical cord knots increased incidence of ...

Fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment

Fetal middle cerebral arterial (MCA) Doppler assessment is an important part of assessing fetal cardiovascular distress, fetal anemia or fetal hypoxia. In the appropriate situation it is a very useful adjunct to umbilical artery Doppler assessment. It is also used in the additional work up of: ...

Absent umbilical arterial end-diastolic flow

Absent end-diastolic flow (AEDF) in an umbilical artery Doppler assessment is a useful feature that indicates underlying fetal vascular stress if detected in mid or late pregnancy. It is often classified as Class II in severity in abnormal umbilical arterial Dopplers 9. Epidemiology Associatio...

Uterine artery flow notching

Uterine artery flow notching refers to a phenomenon observed in uterine arterial Doppler ultrasound assessment. Pathology Associations The presence of notching after 22 weeks is associated with several other conditions including adverse pregnancy outcomes. These include pregnancy induced hyp...

Reversal of umbilical arterial end diastolic flow

Reversal of umbilical artery end-diastolic flow (REDF) or velocity is often an ominous finding if detected after 16 weeks. It is classified as Class III in severity in abnormal umbilical arterial Dopplers 6. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~0.5% of all pregnancies with a much higher...

Syndactyly

Syndactyly (plural: syndactylies) refers to a congenital fusion of two or more digits. It may be confined to soft tissue (soft tissue syndactyly / simple syndactyly) or may involve bone (bony syndactyly / complex syndactyly). Epidemiology The overall estimated incidence is at ~1 per 2500 to 50...

Umbilical cord prolapse

Umbilical cord prolapse is a situation where the umbilical cord protrudes into the cervical canal. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at 0.2-0.5% of all pregnancies 4,5. Pathology Associations Recognized associations include multifetal pregnancy: twin gestation non cephalic/abnormal...

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) results when maternal antibodies attack the fetal red blood cells, leading to a hemolytic anemia and accumulation of bilirubin in the fetus or newborn. It can affect the newborn to varying degrees of severity. When the condition occurs in utero, the term is...

Hemivertebra

Hemivertebra is a type of vertebral anomaly and results from a lack of formation of one half of a vertebral body. It is a common cause of congenital scoliosis. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~0.3 per 1000 live births 2. Associations Recognized associations are many and include: ...

Phocomelia

Phocomelia is an extremely rare congenital skeletal disorder that characteristically affects the limbs. It can affect either the upper limbs or lower limbs or both. Phocomelia is also a descriptive term to describe the characteristic limb anomalies occurring with its associated conditions. Path...

Cyclopia

Cyclopia refers to a rare fetal malformation characterized by a single palpebral fissure and a single midline orbit. This orbit may contain either a single globe or two separate globe. Epidemiology The condition is thought to affect approximately 1 in 40,000 to 95,000 births (inclusive of stil...

Twin growth discordance

Twin growth discordance is a term used in obstetric imaging to describe a significant size or weight difference between the two fetuses of a twin pregnancy. To be classified as a growth discordance, some consider that the estimated fetal weight (EFW) of the smaller twin should fall under the 10t...

Amniotic fluid discordance

An amniotic fluid discordance is usually defined as a difference in amniotic fluid volumes in a twin pregnancy. It is a predictor of poor fetal outcome in twin pregnancy related complications. Pathology Causes of amniotic fluid discordance include: twin-twin transfusion syndrome placental in...

Twin embolization syndrome

Twin embolization syndrome (TES) is a rare complication of a monozygotic twin pregnancy following an in utero demise of the co-twin. Pathology It was traditionally thought to result from the passage of thromboplastic material into the circulation of the surviving twin which causes ischemic str...

Amniotic fluid index

The amniotic fluid index (AFI) is an estimate of the amniotic fluid volume in a pregnant uterus. It is part of the fetal biophysical profile. Technique the uterus is divided into four imaginary quadrants with the linea nigra and a mediolateral line running through the umbilicus acting as the ...

Inter twin membrane

The intertwin membrane refers to a membraneous separation between two fetuses in a twin pregnancy. Depending on the chorionicity and amnionicity, the membrane may have a number of layers dichorionic diamniotic (DCDA) pregnancy composed of two chorionic and two amniotic layers usually has a t...

Epignathus

Epignathus is a term given to a very rare form of teratoid tumor that arises from the oropharyngeal region. Epidemiology There may be a slight female predilection ref. The estimated incidence is ~ 1 in 35,000 to 200,000 births. Clinical presentation The tumor classically presents in utero or...

Macroglossia

Macroglossia means an enlarged tongue. It may be absolute (greater than the 95th centile) or relative (enlarged compared with oral cavity). Pathology Associations Recognized associations include: chromosomal anomalies Down syndrome tends to be a relative macroglossia may also have intermi...

Placentomegaly

Placentomegaly is a term applied to an abnormally-enlarged placenta. Epidemiology Associations It can be associated with a number of maternal and fetal disorders which include: maternal maternal anemia(s) maternal diabetes chronic intrauterine infections alpha-thalassemia fetal umbilic...

Placental thickness

Placental thickness tends to gradually increase with gestational age in a linear fashion. Sonographically, this can be seen to be approximately 1 mm per week and the thickness of the placenta can be used to approximate gestational age: approximate gestational age (in weeks) = placental thicknes...

Umbilical arterial aneurysm

An umbilical arterial aneurysm (UAA) is an extremely rare but potentially lethal vascular anomaly which is usually detected in utero. Pathology Location It tends to favor the placental end of the umbilical artery in the cord. Associations Concurrently associated anomalies are thought to be...

Umbilical vein varix

Umbilical vein varix (UVV) refers to a focal dilatation of the umbilical vein. Epidemiology Associations UVVs were initially thought to have a high association with other anomalies which include: chromosomal anomalies: 5-12% with FIUVV 2,3 Down syndrome underlying congenital cardiovascul...

Nuchal cord

Nuchal cord is a term given to the situation where there are one or more loops of umbilical cord wrapped around the fetal neck for ≥360°. Epidemiology The prevalence is dependent on the extent of coiling and ranges from ~25% for a single loop, to 2.5% for a double loop, to ~0.5% for more than ...

Persistent right umbilical vein

A persistent right umbilical vein (PRUV) is an uncommon vascular anomaly which is often detected in utero. Epidemiology The estimated prevalence is ~2 per 1000 births 1,2. Pathology In the normal situation, the right umbilical vein begins to obliterate in the ~4th week of gestation and disap...

Short umbilical cord

A short umbilical cord has been variably defined. Considering the mean length of the umbilical cord is 50-70 cm 1,2, a short cord in absolute terms is usually taken as one that is under 35-40 cm in length at term 1,2. Epidemiology Associations Recognized associations include chromosomal anom...

Asymmetrical intrauterine growth restriction

Asymmetrical intrauterine growth restriction is a type of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) where some fetal biometric parameters are disproportionately lower than others, as well as falling under the 10th percentile. The parameter classically affected is the abdominal circumference (AC). ...

Freeman Sheldon syndrome

Freeman Sheldon syndrome (FSS), also known as distal arthrogryposis type IIa, is a congenital condition where multiple joint contractures are a key feature. Affected individuals are known to have a characteristic facial expression resembling that of a whistling face and hence the syndrome is als...

Antenatal features of Down syndrome

Antenatal screening of Down syndrome (and other less common aneuploidies) should be available as a routine component of antenatal care. It allows families to either adjust to the idea of having a child with the condition or to consider termination of pregnancy. For a general description of Down...

Placenta increta

Placenta increta is an intermediate level in the placenta accreta spectrum disorders and accounts for ~20% of such cases. The placental villi extend beyond the confines of the endometrium and invade the myometrium but do not reach the uterine serosa. The ends of the spectrum of abnormal placen...

Placenta percreta

Placenta percreta is a term given to the most severe but least common form of the placenta accreta spectrum disorders, where there is a transmural extension of placental tissue across the myometrium with a serosal breach. It carries severe maternal as well as fetal risks. The milder end of the ...

Fetal enteric duplication cyst

Fetal enteric duplication cysts are enteric duplication cysts presenting in utero. Pathology They result from an abnormal recanalization of the gastrointestinal tract. They comprise of a two-layer smooth muscle wall and an internal epithelium of a respiratory or intestinal type. These cysts ma...

Symmetrical intrauterine growth restriction

Symmetrical intrauterine growth restriction is a type of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) where all fetal biometric parameters tend to be less than expected (below the 10th percentile) for the given gestational age. Both length and weight parameters are reduced. Please, refer to the artic...

Asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia

Asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia, also known as Jeune syndrome, is a type of rare short limb skeletal dysplasia, which is primarily characterized by a constricted long narrow thoracic cavity, cystic renal dysplasia and characteristic skeletal features. It is also sometimes classified as one of th...

Lethal multiple pterygium syndrome

Lethal multiple pterygium syndrome (LMPS) is a lethal subtype of the multiple pterygium syndrome. Epidemiology Associations polyhydramnios congenital cardiac anomalies 10 omphalocele 7 Pathology It is primarily characterized by the presence of pterygia (or wings) present in two or more bo...

Multiple pterygium syndrome

The multiple pterygium syndrome (MPS) refers to a group of syndromes which are collectively characterized by multiple soft tissue webs (or pterygia) across the neck and various joints. They can be broadly classified into two main groups lethal multiple pterygium syndrome non-lethal multiple p...

Shortened fetal femur

A shortened fetal femur is a morphological descriptor and is usually defined when the femoral length falls below the 5th centile for gestational age (some define it when it is under the 2.5th centile 5) or less than 0.91 predicted by the biparietal diameter (BPD). It can occur in isolated or in ...

Placental cyst

Placental cyst refers to a simple cystic lesion that develops in relation to the placenta. Epidemiology Their estimated prevalence is at 2-20% of all pregnancies. Pathology Location They can be categorized by location: within the placental tissue (placental septal cysts) under the fetal ...

Primary fetal hydrothorax

Primary fetal hydrothorax (PFHT) is a rare entity that refers to a primary accumulation of fetal pleural fluid without any underlying abnormality. It can present with a wide spectrum of severity and can be uni or bilateral. Epidemiology The estimated prevalence is at ~ 1:10,000-15,000 pregnanc...

Fetal pleural effusion

Fetal pleural effusions (FPE) refer to an accumulation of pleural fluid in utero. It can refer to either a fetal chylothorax or a fetal hydrothorax. Pathology A fetal pleural effusion can occur as part of hydrops fetalis, in association with other anomalies without hydrops or in isolation - pr...

Placenta membranacea

Placenta membranacea, also known as a placenta diffusa, is an extremely uncommon variation in placental morphology in which the placenta develops as a thin membranous structure occupying the entire periphery of the chorion. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is ~1:20,000-40,000 pregnancies 1...

Low-lying placenta

Low-lying placenta occurs when the placenta extends into the lower uterine segment and its edge lies too close to the internal os of the cervix, without covering it. The term is usually applied when the placental edge is within 0.5-5.0 cm of the internal cervical os 1. Some alternatively give th...

Marginal cord insertion

Marginal cord insertion, also known as a 'battledore insertion', is a type of abnormal cord insertion. Terminology Insertion of the umbilical cord within <2 cm from the placental margin is described as marginal cord insertion (usually defined as <2 cm 5 although some references define it as <1...

Variation in cord insertion

There can be several variations with cord insertion into the placenta: central insertion (~90%): normal situation eccentric cord insertion: lateral insertion of the umbilical cord >2 cm from the placental margin term sometimes used synonymously with marginal cord insertion marginal cord inse...

Velamentous cord insertion

Velamentous cord insertion is a type of abnormal umbilical cord insertion into the placenta. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is ~1% in singleton and 9-15% in twin pregnancies, respectively 11. It is also more common in placenta previa than in normally located placentas. The prevalence may...

Subgaleal hematoma

Subgaleal hematoma describes scalp bleeding in the potential space between the periosteum and the galeal aponeurosis. It is a rare but possibly lethal emergency. Epidemiology Moderate to severe presentations occur in 1.5 of 10,000 live births. It most commonly occurs after vacuum-assisted and ...

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