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Pediatric hip (abduction-internal rotation view)

The abduction-internal rotation view (AIR view), also known as the Von Rosen view, is a radiographic projection of the hip demonstrating the relationship between the femoral head and the acetabulum. Indications The von Rosen view is used in the diagnosis of developmental dysplasia of the hip i...

Hiccups

Hiccups (or hiccoughs), medical term singultus (rare plural: singultūs), are an unpleasant phenomenon, experienced by everyone on occasion, and usually self-limiting. However the much rarer intractable chronic form can be extremely debilitating. Epidemiology Hiccups are a symptom that has prob...

Aorto-ventricular tunnel

Aorto-ventricular tunnel (AVT) is an extremely rare form of congenital heart disease, representing an anomalous extracardiac communication between the ascending aorta and the left or right ventricles. Terminology In most cases the anomalous communication is between the aorta and the left ventr...

Chronic suppurative lung disease

Chronic suppurative lung disease (CSLD) refers to a group of conditions which includes: cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis primary ciliary dyskinesia This term is usually used in the context of pediatric patients.

Body imaging

Body imaging is the term assigned to cross-sectional imaging of the body, which radiologically refers to the chest, abdomen and pelvis. It is often used by radiologists who report this region (sometimes known as body imagers/radiologists) to differentiate their primary area of interest from othe...

Preauricular sinus

Preauricular sinuses (also known as preauricular pits or preauricular cysts) are common congenital abnormalities that are typically small blind-ended openings near the ascending limb of the helix. These can be a simple pit or have a sinus tract and/or cystic component. Epidemiology They are mo...

Femoral facial syndrome

Femoral facial syndrome, also known as femoral hypoplasia-unusual facies syndrome, is a rare congenital syndrome characterized by varying degrees of femoral hypoplasia and facial dysmorphism 1. Clinical presentation Femoral facial syndrome can cause varying degrees of femoral malformation rang...

Homocystinuria

Homocystinuria is a rare congenital disorder of metabolism. Clinical presentation The disease may affect one or more of the systems below 1,2: eye: ectopia lentis (typically downwards and inwards) CNS: seizures, dystonia, developmental delay skeletal: scoliosis, pectus excavatum, long limb...

Renal replacement therapy

Renal replacement therapy (RRT) (also called renal dialysis or just dialysis) is used to supplement renal function in patients with either end-stage chronic kidney disease or medically-refractory acute renal impairment. Theory Haemodialysis refers to the diffusion of solutes in solution across...

Craniorachischisis

Craniorachischisis, also known as craniorachischisis totalis, is a rare birth defect and the most severe of the neural tube defects. It refers to the presence of both anencephaly and spina bifida. Epidemiology In one study the prevalence of craniorachischisis was 0.51 per 10,000 live births in...

Pediatric radiology for students (curriculum)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Pediatric radiology curriculum for medical students covers the fundamental imaging modalities, conditions and presentations on children that require imaging. As expected and of more importance compared to adults, when cons...

Fibrous hamartoma of infancy

Fibrous hamartoma of infancy is a rare benign tumor of the subcutaneous tissues seen in children. More than 90% of cases present in the first year of life with up to 25% being congenital 1. Epidemiology There is a reported male:female ratio of 2:1 but the exact incidence is unknown 2. Clinica...

Congenital hemangioma

Congenital hemangiomas are benign vascular tumors of childhood that are present at birth. They are generally different from the much commoner infantile hemangioma on imaging and have distinct histological and clinical features. While the majority are cutaneous or subcutaneous in nature, they ca...

Parotid infantile hemangioma

Parotid infantile hemangiomas are the most common parotid tumor of childhood. They usually run a characteristically benign course. Epidemiology The median age at diagnosis is 4 months 1. There is a female preponderance with a male: female ratio of 1:3. Clinical presentation Presents as an en...

Telltale triangle sign

The telltale triangle sign, also known as the triangle sign or telltale triangle, is a radiographic sign seen on plain abdominal radiographs in a supine, cross table lateral or decubitus view that signifies presence of pneumoperitoneum, of any cause 1,2. It describes the appearance of a radiolu...

Pediatric nasal cavity masses

Pediatric nasal cavity masses can occur within the nose or the nasopharynx. These masses are often found incidentally on imaging but can be readily apparent clinically. Clinical presentation The clinical features of these lesions tend to mimic upper respiratory processes and may result in dela...

Simple pancreatic cyst

Simple pancreatic cysts, also known as true epithelial cysts or retention cysts, are unilocular cysts within the pancreas, lined by a monolayer of epithelium, which lack communication with the pancreatic ducts 1,5. In contradistinction to other solid viscera, simple cysts in the pancreas are a r...

AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries

The AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries is a commonly used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification system. The current AO Spine system (2013) supercedes the more complex and less reproducible AO Magerl classification 1. Unlike the other widely used system, the thoracolumbar i...

Telephone receiver deformity

A telephone receiver deformity is a characteristic bowing of the shaft of the long bones, usually the humeri or femora, seen in thanatophoric dysplasia.

Trident acetabulum

Trident acetabulum is an appearance which can be seen in several skeletal dysplasias 1. It is characterized by small bony spurs at the medial and lateral acetabular margins with a more subtle central spur, resembling a trident, the three-pronged spear of classical Greece 1. The appearance has...

Salla disease

Salla disease, also known as Finnish type sialuria, is a rare autosomal recessive disease that primarily affects the central nervous system. It is considered the mildest form of free sialic acid storage disorder. Clinical presentation Neurological symptoms related to this rare disease are usua...

Glycogen storage disease type I

Glycogen storage disease type I (GSD-I), also known as von Gierke disease, is a type of glycogen storage disease where there is excess deposition of glycogen primarily in the liver, but also in the kidney and small bowel. Epidemiology It occurs approximately one in every 100,000 live births 2,...

Bone age (radiograph)

The bone age radiograph of the hand and wrist is a commonly performed examination to determine the radiographic age of the patient via the assessment of growth centers. Indications Bone age radiographs may be indicated for both clinical and non-clinical purposes 6,7: for the investigation ...

Cozen fracture

Cozen fracture or phenomenon is the valgus angulation deformity of the tibia following a proximal tibial metaphyseal fracture in children. Epidemiology This typically occurs as a late deformity in children aged 3-6 years. Pathology Etiology Proposed causes include: non-recognized or under ...

Currarino-Silverman syndrome

Currarino-Silverman syndrome, also known as pectus carinatum type 2 deformity, is a rare disorder. Clinical presentation Patients present with a high carinate chest deformity due to a premature fusion of the manubriosternal joint and sternal ossification centers. Congenital heart diseases have...

Becker muscular dystrophy

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is a dystrophinopathy that is considered to be a milder form of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Epidemiology It may be present in 3 to 6 per 100,000 male births. The condition is extremely rare in females due to its inheritance pattern, as discussed below. Clinica...

Bacterial tracheitis

Exudative tracheitis, also known as bacterial tracheitis, membranous croup or membranous laryngotracheobronchitis, is a rare, but potentially life-threatening cause of upper airway obstruction. Epidemiology Typical age ranges from 6 to 10 years of age. Clinical presentation Bacterial trachei...

Raine syndrome

Raine syndrome, also known as lethal osteosclerotic bone dysplasia, is a very rare genetic disorder. Infants with this syndrome present with numerous characteristic craniofacial features as well as cerebral calcifications. Many individuals with this disorder are stillborn or die as neonates 4. ...

Leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation

Leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation (LBSL) is a rare inherited autosomal recessive leukodystrophy characterized by slowly progressive pyramidal, cerebellar, and dorsal column dysfunction. Epidemiology Although considered rare, the exact prevalen...

Isolated greater trochanteric fracture

Greater trochanteric fractures generally result from forceful muscle contraction of a fixed limb, which usually occurs in those who are young and physically active. It can also be caused by direct trauma. Epidemiology Generally, isolated trochanteric fractures are seen more so in young, active...

Ciliopathies

Ciliopathies refer to diseases due to malfunctioning cilia (singular: cilium). Cilia are organelles that are external extensions of the cell membrane. Cilia fall into two main types: primary (or immotile) cilia and motile cilia. Clinical presentation Primary cilia are found in virtually every...

Valvular heart disease

Valvular heart diseases, or cardiac valvulopathies, describe any acquired or congenital disease affecting one or more of the four cardiac valves. This is a general index article that classifies cardiac valvulopathies depending on which valve(s) is affected 1. See individual articles for in-dept...

Pulmonary valve stenosis

Pulmonary valve stenosis, or pulmonic valve stenosis, is a valvulopathy that describes the narrowing of the opening of the pulmonary valve between the pulmonary trunk and the right ventricle. Epidemiology Pulmonary stenosis is nearly always (95%) congenital, and therefore primarily affects the...

Fountain sign (acute idiopathic scrotal edema)

The fountain sign is a sonographic sign described in acute idiopathic scrotal edema (AISE). It refers to the appearance of the pattern of vascularity seen during transverse color Doppler sonography of the scrotum with both testes together 1. In this transverse view, in patients with AISE, marke...

Undifferentiated embryonal sarcoma of the liver

Undifferentiated embryonal sarcomas of the liver are rare, aggressive, and malignant liver tumors encountered in the pediatric population. Epidemiology Approximately 90% of cases occur in patients under 15 years of age, most commonly between 6 and 10 years of age, but some cases have been rep...

Lenticulostriate vasculopathy

Lenticulostriate vasculopathy also known as thalamostriate vasculopathy or mineralizing vasculopathy 1, refers to the ultrasound appearance of hyperechogenic linear or branching tubular streaks in the thalami or basal ganglia of neonates. Epidemiology Lenticulostriate vasculopathy has been rep...

Caterpillar sign (pyloric stenosis)

The caterpillar sign is a radiological sign described in pyloric stenosis. It refers to the appearance of the stomach on an upper gastrointestinal radiographic series or plain abdominal radiograph 1,2. On these imaging modalities in a patient with pyloric stenosis, the stomach appears distended...

Gerbode defect

The Gerbode defect describes a rare abnormal left-to-right shunt between the left ventricle and right atrium through a defect in the atrioventricular septum, usually congenital in etiology. Epidemiology Gerbode defects are rare congenital cardiac anomalies, and are thought to account for less ...

Pyrexia of unknown origin

A pyrexia of unknown origin, commonly shortened to PUO, and also known as a fever of unknown origin (FUO), was originally defined in 1961 as the condition in which the core body temperature is >38.3oC for a period of three weeks or more, with no diagnosis reached after one week of inpatient inve...

Urbach-Wiethe disease

Urbach-Wiethe disease, also known as lipoid proteinosis or hyalinosis cutis et mucosae, is a rare autosomal recessive genodermatosis that primarily affects the skin, upper respiratory tract, and central nervous system. Epidemiology Urbach-Wiethe disease is a very rare condition, with fewer tha...

Sexual differentiation

Sexual differentiation refers to the embryological development of male and female phenotypes. Unlike sexual genotype which is determined at the time of fertilisation, the male and female phenotypes do not begin to differentiate substantially until the seventh week of gestation. Males Y chromo...

Protein S deficiency

Protein S deficiency is a hypercoagulable state associated with increased risk of venous thrombosis (up to 5% of patients with deep venous thrombosis may carry this deficiency). Epidemiology Protein S deficiency may be expected in ≈1 of every 500 people 3. Clinical presentation The spectrum ...

Duane syndrome

Duane syndrome, also known as Duane retraction syndrome, is a rare congenital disease characterized by non-progressive strabismus. It is caused by a variable degree of abnormal development of one or both 6th cranial nerves (CN VI). Epidemiology It presents during childhood and it accounts for ...

Osteopathia striata with cranial sclerosis

Osteopathia striata with cranial sclerosis (OS-CS) is a clinically separate entity from osteopathia striata (Voorhoeve disease). Bony changes on their own are typically incidental and autosomal dominant, whereas OS-CS is a multisystem, X-linked dominant disorder. Epidemiology OS-CS is extremel...

Kernicterus

Kernicterus, also known as chronic bilirubin encephalopathy, describes the chronic, toxic, permanent sequelae of high levels of unconjugated bilirubin on the central nervous system of infants. It is part of the spectrum of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction, which also includes acute bilir...

Hoffa fat pad herniation

Hoffa fat pad herniation is defined as herniation of infrapatellar fat through a defect in the lateral retinaculum. It is an uncommon cause of an anterolateral knee mass often detected at the fully flexed knee 1. Clinical presentation Mainly occurs in preschool-aged and young children as a pai...

Neonatal neuroblastoma

Neonatal neuroblastoma is a type of congenital neuroblastoma, an embryonal tumor arising from the sympathetic nervous system. In the majority of cases (45%), the tumor is localized in the adrenal gland. Epidemiology Neonatal neuroblastoma accounts for less than 5% of all cases and carries a f...

Bone within a bone appearance (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the possible etiologies of a bone within a bone appearance is: GHOST DRAGON Mnemonic G: growth arrest lines H: heavy metals, hypoparathyroidism, hypothyroidism O: osteopetrosis S: sickle cell anemia, scurvy, syphilis T: thalassemia, tuberculosis D: disease o...

Tibia vara

Tibia vara (also known as genu varus and bow-leggedness) is a varus deformity with outward bowing at the knee and medial angulation (inward) of the lower leg in relation to the thigh's coronal axis. The differential of bow-legging in children is long, with common causes including Blount disease...

Megalencephaly-capillary malformation syndrome

Megalencephaly-capillary malformation (MCAP) syndrome, also known as macrocephaly-capillary malformation syndrome, is a rare and well described genetic disorder caused by somatic mutations in the PIK3CA gene on chromosome 3q26 and characterized by early brain overgrowth and body morphogenesis an...

Mendosal suture

The mendosal suture (also known as the accessory occipital suture) is a normal calvarial suture. Gross anatomy The suture extends through the occipital bone, lying superior to the occipitomastoid suture and inferomedial to the lambdoid suture. It closes in utero or in the first few days of lif...

Triple bubble sign

The triple bubble sign is the classic radiographic appearance observed in jejunal atresia 1,2. The appearance is due to a proximal obstruction caused by the atretric jejunum. It is equivalent to the double bubble sign, but a third bubble is seen because of proximal jejunal distention.

Barium sulfate contrast medium

Barium sulfate (BaSO4), often just called barium in radiology parlance, is an ionic salt of barium (Ba), a metallic chemical element with atomic number 56. Barium sulfate forms the basis for a range of contrast media used in fluoroscopic examinations of the gastrointestinal tract. Unlike barium ...

Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps syndrome

Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps (HANAC) syndrome is an autosomal dominant monogenic COL4A1-related disorder. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown. Clinical presentation The cardinal features of HANAC syndrome are helpfully described in the name of...

COL4A1-related disorders

COL4A1-related disorders are a group of autosomal dominant disorders caused by a mutation in the COL4A1 gene. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown, but the group of disorders is considered to be under-recognized, especially asymptomatic variants 1. Clinical presentation The clinical ...

COL4A1 brain small-vessel disease

COL4A1 brain small-vessel disease is an autosomal dominant monogenic COL4A1-related disorder that primarily causes cerebral small vessel disease. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown, but the condition is likely under-diagnosed. Clinical presentation The clinical presentation is vari...

Enterovirus rhombencephalitis

Enterovirus rhombencephalitis is the most common neurological complication of enterovirus infection 1. Clinical presentation Enterovirus rhombencephalitis causes acute and severe neurologic disorders such as ataxia, nystagmus, oculomotor palsies, or bulbar palsy. In some cases, neurologic affe...

RASopathy

RASopathies are a class of developmental disorders caused by germline mutations in genes that encode for components or regulators of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Epidemiology As a group, RASopathies represent one of the most common malformation syndromes, with an in...

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (CNS manifestations)

The central nervous system (CNS) is an uncommonly involved organ system in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). Involvement of the CNS is related but distinct from involvement of the skull base or craniofacial structures, which are discussed separately in the article skeletal manifestations of L...

Spondylocostal dysostosis

Spondylocostal dysostosis (SCDO) is a rare condition characterized by short-trunk dwarfism secondary to developmental anomalies of the vertebrae and ribs. Previously the condition Jarcho-Levin syndrome (also known as spondylothoracic dysostosis) was grouped together with spondylocostal dysostosi...

Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome

Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome (RTSC), also known as 3C (cranio-cerebello-cardiac) syndrome, is a rare entity with a variable spectrum of CNS (primarily cerebellar), craniofacial, and congenital heart defects. Clinical presentation craniofacial cleft palate ocular coloboma prominent occiput lo...

Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a dystrophinopathy and the most common muscular dystrophy. Epidemiology DMD has an incidence of 1 in 3500 to 5000 males 1,2. The condition is extremely rare in females due to its inheritance pattern, as discussed below 1. Clinical presentation The charact...

Tension gastrothorax

Tension gastrothorax describes a rare life-threatening condition caused by mediastinal shift due to a distended stomach herniating into the thorax through a diaphragmatic defect. Clinical presentation Presentation is generally with acute and severe respiratory failure, with clinical features ...

POLG-related disorders

POLG-related disorders, or polymerase gamma-related disorders, describes a spectrum of genetic mitochondrial disorders with overlapping phenotypes. The four main POLG-related disorders are: Alpers syndrome ataxia neuropathy spectrum (ANS) progressive external ophthalmoplegia (PEO) myoclonic...

Syphilis

Syphilis is the result of infection with the gram-negative spirochete Treponema pallidum, subspecies pallidum. It results in a heterogeneous spectrum of disease with many systems that can potentially be involved, which are discussed separately. Epidemiology Despite the discovery of penicillin...

CHALICE rule

The Children’s Head injury ALgorithm for prediction of Clinically Important Events (CHALICE) clinical decision rule was developed to predict clinically important brain injuries in children with head trauma. This rule identifies high-risk criteria and divides them into history, examination and me...

Townes-Brocks syndrome

Townes-Brocks syndrome (Renal-Ear-Anal-Radial (REAR) syndrome) is a rare autosomal dominant disease characterized by renal, anal, ear, and thumb abnormalities. Clinical presentation The major manifestations of this syndrome include: renal: displaced or rotated kidneys, horseshoe kidney, p...

Waardenburg syndrome

Waardenburg syndrome is a rare neurocristopathy, with congenital pigmentary disorder secondary to an abnormal distribution of neural crest-derived melanocytes during embryogenesis resulting in patchy areas of depigmentation. It is considered in the investigation of congenital sensorineural deafn...

Congenital portosystemic shunt

Congenital portosystemic shunts are rare, extrahepatic or intrahepatic, anatomical abnormalities shunting blood from the portal venous system to the systemic venous system and, thus, avoiding passage through the hepatic acinus. Terminology The term “portosystemic shunt” can be used to refer t...

PECARN traumatic brain injury algorithm

The PECARN (Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network) traumatic brain injury algorithm is a clinical decision rule that aims to identify children at very low risk of clinically important traumatic brain injury (ci-TBI) 1. This validated pediatric algorithm predicts likelihood of the abo...

Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia

Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia is a form of skeletal dysplasia mainly involving the spine and proximal epiphyses. Clinical presentation short neck short trunk with protruding abdomen normal IQ spine atlantoaxial instability craniovertebral junction stenosis platyspondyly scoliosis exag...

Infantile cervical ligament edema

Infantile cervical ligament edema can typically be seen when infants have suffered accidental or abusive head and neck trauma. The finding is best seen on sagittal STIR images. Terminology The posterior ligamentous complex refers to the ligamentum flavum and interspinous ligaments. The anterio...

Diamond-Blackfan anemia

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) (previously known as congenital hypoplastic anemia) is the primary congenital form of pure red cell aplasia. It is a rare sporadic genetic form of anemia that typically presents in the first few years of life, and usually only affects cells of the erythroid lineage ...

Odontohypophosphatasia

Odontohypophosphatasia is the mildest form of hypophosphatasia that manifests as tooth dysplasia and/or early loss of deciduous or permanent teeth. Pathology As with all forms of hypophosphatasia, the underlying abnormality is a mutation in the ALPL gene that encodes for tissue non-specific al...

Computed tomography scanogram for leg length discrepancy assessment

Computed tomography scanogram for leg length discrepancy assessment is performed in patients (children in most of the cases) with suspected inequality in leg length (anisomelia). Technique obtained images are typically anteroposterior (AP) scout views of the bilateral femurs and tibias femor...

Computed bone maturity (bone age) measurement

Computed bone age measurement refers to the automatic computer analysis of a left hand radiograph in order to estimate accurately bone age in cases of suspected growth delay. Function Advanced digital processing of data from automatic computer analysis of the phalangeal/carpal bones and/or ep...

Normal kidney size (children)

The normal size of kidneys in children follows a growth curve and is closely related to the age and size of the child. Ethnic differences have also been shown, which may be an important consideration when interpreting measurements against a reference range 4. In infants median (normal range bet...

Congenital insensitivity to pain

Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP) refers to a group of rare hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (HSANs) characterized by an inability to feel pain 1. Terminology Although not clearly defined in the literature, congenital insensitivity to pain is not one specific diagnosis but de...

Pelvic osteotomy

Pelvic osteotomy relates to an orthopedic treatment for developmental acetabular dysplasia of the hip. The main purpose of pelvic osteotomy is the prevention of early degenerative changes by stabilization of the hip and redistribution of joint loading. It is obtained by surgical reshaping/remod...

Normal pediatric imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the pediatric patients divided by region, modality, and age. Chest Plain radiograph chest radiograph premature (27 weeks): example 1 neonate: example 1 (lateral decubitus) 9-month-old: example 1 5-year-old: example 1 6-year-old: example ...

LUMBAR syndrome

LUMBAR, PELVIS, or SACRAL syndrome is the association of infantile hemangiomas in the lower body with other extracutaneous congenital abnormalities in the region. The syndrome may be incomplete. Pathology LUMBAR 1 lower body hemangiomas urogenital anomalies and ulceration myelopathy bony...

Neurenteric canal of Kovalevsky

The neurenteric canal or canal of Kovalevsky is the transient communication of the amnion through notochordal canal to the yolk sac during notochordal formation at day 16-17. Abnormalities during this stage produce the neurenteric cyst spectrum.

Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries

Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries, also known as levo- or L-loop transposition (L-TGA), is a rare cardiovascular anomaly with inversion of the ventricles and great arteries. See the main article on transposition of the great arteries for discussion of the D-loop subtype....

Osteofibrous dysplasia

Osteofibrous dysplasia is a benign fibro-osseous cortical lesion that occurs almost exclusively in the tibia and fibula. It is most commonly seen in the mid-diaphysis of the tibia. Some consider it synonymous with ossifying fibroma because of histological similarities, but it is generally consid...

Cremaster muscle

The cremaster muscle is the thin fascial muscle of the spermatic cord made of skeletal muscle. It is also referred to as cremaster fascia or simply the cremaster. Its action is to retract the testes, important in thermoregulation and spermatogenesis. Gross anatomy It is derived from the inter...

Bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria

Bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria (BFPP) is a rare genetic condition consisting of extensive bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria. As is the case with many areas of medicine transitioning from phenotypical to molecular/genetic definitions, it has been postulated what bilateral frontopari...

Intussusception reduction

Intussusception reduction is a procedure performed in pediatric patients who have an ileocolic intussusception. There are several ways that reduction can be achieved radiologically: air-reduction under fluoroscopic guidance hydrostatic-reduction under fluoroscopic guidance physical reduction...

Rhabdomyosarcoma (genitourinary tract)

Rhabdomyosarcomas of the genitourinary tract are uncommon tumors occurring in pelvic organs. It is a disease nearly exclusive to the pediatric population. For a general discussion of this type of tumor, please refer to the article on rhabdomyosarcomas. Epidemiology The peak incidence of tumo...

Hemoglobinopathies

A hemoglobinopathy is a genetic disorder which alters the structure of hemoglobin 1. The result is reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to the tissues, and other sequelae. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation varies, is related to hypoxia, and characteristically includes the fo...

Faulty fetal packing

Faulty fetal packing, also known as congenital vault depression, is a congenital concave depression of the skull in a newborn. Epidemiology Occurs in 1 in 10,000 births 1. Pathology This appearance is due to external compression on the skull from 1,2: fetal limb or twin uterine fibroid b...

Dorsal brainstem syndrome

Dorsal brainstem syndrome is a rare subset of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy in neonates limited to the isolated involvement of the brainstem with sparing of the supratentorial brain. Due to its subtle imaging features, it is often undiagnosed. Clinical presentation Injuries involving the teg...

Salter-Harris type III fracture

Salter-Harris type III fractures are an uncommon, intraarticular fracture physeal fractures that occur in children. The fracture line is often obliquely oriented through the epiphysis to the physis where it will take a horizontal orientation extending to the edge of the physis. The prognosis...

Salter-Harris type II fracture

Salter-Harris type II fractures are the most common type of physeal fractures that occur in children. There is a fracture that extends through the physis and into a portion of the metaphysis. A triangular metaphyseal fragment, otherwise known as the Thurston Holland fragment, will be left intact...

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