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Split atlas

Split or bipartite atlas is the rare congenital anomaly where the atlas is split into two halves by fusion defects in both the anterior and posterior arches. The osseous defects are spanned by fibrous tissue. They are usually asymptomatic and found incidentally on spinal imaging. Patients may h...

Pars interarticularis

The pars interarticularis or simply pars (plural: partes interarticulares) is the part of a vertebra located between the superior and inferior articular processes. Gross anatomy In the axis and the thoracolumbar spine, the pars interarticularis is a narrow isthmus between the superior and inf...

Lumbar gravity line

The lumbar gravity line is a measurement made on spinal / chiropractic imaging. It is usually drawn on an erect weight bearing radiograph as plumb line drawn downwards on a sagittal image from the L3 vertebra and usually should pass through the anterior 1/3 of the sacrum. See also cervical gra...

Gertzbein and Robbins classification

The Gertzbein and Robbins classification assesses the position of transpedicular screws. Classification Transpedicular screw position is graded from A to E based on the extent by which the screw breaches the cortex of the pedicle 1-3: A: fully intrapedicular position without breach of the ped...

Cervical gravity line

The cervical gravity line is a measurement made on spinal / chiropractic imaging. It is usually drawn on an erect weight bearing radiograph as plumb line drawn downwards on a sagittal image from the dens. See also lumbar gravity line

Lumbar foraminal stenosis

Lumbar foraminal stenosis or lumbar neuroforaminal stenosis is described as narrowing of the neural exit foramina. It is a common cause of backache and/or radiculopathy and is assessed as part of the routine evaluation of lumbar MRI studies to determine what impact, if any, the surrounding struc...

Cone artery

The cone artery, also known as the artery of Desproges-Gotteron, is a rare anatomical variant which commonly arises from the internal iliac artery. Gross anatomy Origin The cone artery has a variable origin and may arise from the internal iliac artery or its branches, commonly the iliolumbar ...

Sinuvertebral nerve

The sinuvertebral nerve, also known as the recurrent meningeal nerve, or the recurrent nerve of Luschka, is a branch of the primary ventral ramus and grey ramus communicans in the intervertebral foramen. It enters the spinal canal and supplies the posterior portion of the annulus of the interver...

Cancellous bone

Cancellous, trabecular or spongy bone is one of the two macroscopic forms of bone, the other being cortical bone, and comprises 20% of skeletal mass. Gross anatomy Cancellous bone is located in the medullary cavity of bone, in particular tubular and short bones, and consists of dense trabecul...

Empty vertebral body sign

The empty vertebral body sign is referred to as a radiolucency on a vertebral body seen on the AP radiograph in patients with a flexion-distraction injury mechanism 1-3 caused by the absent superposition of the posterior spinal elements onto the vertebral body. In other words, the sign results ...

Lumbar spine fracture

Lumbar spine fractures are often a result of significant blunt trauma such as motor vehicle accidents or a fall from height. Non-traumatic causes include osteoporotic and pathological fractures. Epidemiology Traumatic fractures are more common in males. The risk of osteoporotic fractures incre...

Thoracolumbar spine fracture

Thoracolumbar spine fractures are often the result of significant blunt trauma such as motor vehicle accidents or falling from a height. Fractures in this region range from non-complex to highly complex and will vary in prognosis. Epidemiology Males are affected more commonly than females wit...

Functional neuroanatomy

Functional neuroanatomy is the study of the functional connections in the brain and spinal cord, distinct but interconnected with the structural or "more conventional" anatomic descriptions of the central nervous system. It focuses on the relationship between structure and function and hence it ...

Vertebral centroid angle

The vertebral centroid angle is considered an alternative to the Cobb angle especially in kyphosis and lordosis measurement. It is considered less susceptible to variations in the vertebral end-plate architecture 2.

Sandwich sign (disambiguation)

The sandwich sign is used for two different imaging appearances: sandwich sign (Marchiafava-Bignami disease) sandwich sign (mesentery) Sandwich sign has also been coined for the appearance of: primary pleural lymphoma 1,2 mediastinal lymphoma 3 marrow edema and hemorrhage on MRI of flexion...

Translation-rotation spine injury

Translation-rotation spine injuries are severe injuries characterized by horizontal displacement or rotation of one vertebral body with respect to another. Pathology These injuries result from torsional and shear forces. This type of injury is usually severe and involves the posterior ligament...

Meniscus sign (myelography)

The meniscus sign refers to the intradural filling defect which is outlined by the sharp meniscus of intrathecal contrast due to blockage of subarachnoid space by an intradural lesion. The CSF above the blocked segment remains unopacified.

Methotrexate-induced myelopathy

Methotrexate-induced myelopathy is an uncommon toxic manifestation of intrathecal methotrexate administration that closely mimics subacute combined degeneration of the cord but with normal vitamin B12 and copper 1,2. It is far less common than methotrexate-related leukoencephalopathy. Epidemiol...

Whiplash syndrome

Whiplash syndrome, also known as whiplash-associated disorders (WAD), are the various symptoms caused by rapid acceleration and/or deceleration injuries, which result in cervical sprain or strain. Epidemiology Whiplash is a common injury, usually associated with motor vehicle collisions 1-5. T...

Scimitar (disambiguation)

The term scimitar, referring to the characteristic shape of the Middle Eastern sword, may refer to the following: scimitar syndrome (lungs) scimitar sign (cystic adventitial disease) scimitar sacrum (bones)

Sacroiliitis

Sacroiliitis (rare plural: sacroiliitides), is an inflammation of one or both sacroiliac (SI) joints, and a common cause of buttocks or lower back pain. Sacroiliitis can be a manifestation of a wide range of disease processes. Clinical presentation Symptoms of sacroiliitis can vary. People wit...

Cyst of the ligamentum flavum

Cysts of the ligamentum flavum, also known as flaval cysts, are classified as a type of degenerative spinal cysts 1, which arise from the ligamentum flavum. Epidemiology Cyst of the ligamentum flavum do not show a gender predilection (M=F) and are most commonly found in the middle aged and eld...

Alar ligament calcification

Alar ligament calcification is rare. The alar ligaments arise bilaterally from the upper portion of the odontoid process and run obliquely cephalad and laterally to insert on the medial surface of the occipital condyles. They stabilize the head during rotatory movements. Epidemiology Focal c...

White cord syndrome

White cord syndrome refers to the sudden onset of neurological deterioration following spinal decompressive surgery. The condition is believed to be a form of reperfusion injury of the spinal cord, not to be confused with central cord syndrome. Epidemiology White cord syndrome is rare with onl...

Hernia (general)

Hernias (or herniae) are a common pathological entity, in which an anatomical structure passes into an abnormal location via an opening. The opening may be a normal physiological aperture (e.g. hiatus hernia: stomach passes through the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus) or pathological. Iatrogeni...

Lumboperitoneal shunt

Lumboperitoneal (LP) shunts are a device used to shunt cerebrospinal fluid in the treatment of increased CSF pressure. As the name suggests, a catheter is placed with its tip in the lumbar spinal canal (intrathecal). The distal catheter is tunneled under the skin and into the peritoneal cavity....

Autoimmune glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) astrocytopathy

Autoimmune glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) astrocytopathy, or simply GFAP astrocytopathy, is a rare inflammatory central nervous system (CNS) disorder. Epidemiology Given the rarity of the condition, epidemiological data pertaining to autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy are not well establishe...

Spinal cord schistosomiasis

Spinal cord schistosomiasis is a grave central nervous system form of this parasitic disease. In endemic areas, it should be included in the differential diagnosis of myelopathy, as early treatment is fundamental in the prevention of severe and irreversible injuries. This article discusses spi...

Vertebral body endplate

Vertebral body endplates are anatomically-discrete structures that form the interface between the vertebral bodies and the adjacent intervertebral discs. They are constituted peripherally by an epiphyseal bone ring and centrally by a cartilaginous layer. The cartilaginous layer is related to the...

Thoracic spine fracture-dislocation

Thoracic spine fracture-dislocations are severe forms of spinal column injuries that occur secondary to high-energy trauma, in which there is vertebral fracture concomitant with dislocation of facet joints and/or the intervertebral disc space. They are mechanically unstable and are associated wi...

Spinal arteriovenous fistula

Spinal arteriovenous fistulas (spinal AVFs) are characterized by abnormal communication and shunting of blood from an artery to a vein of the spine that bypasses the capillary bed. Epidemiology Spinal arteriovenous fistulas represent approximately 70% of all spinal vascular malformations 1,2. ...

Annulus fibrosus calcification

Annulus fibrosus calcification is a form of intervertebral disc calcification where the peripheral annular portion (annulus fibrosus) can get calcified. This may occur in isolation or in conjunction with other sites of disc calcification. It could involve any portion of the spine. Some suggest t...

Lordosis

Lordosis (plural: lordoses) is the term used to refer to the normal anterior curvature of the cervical and lumbar spines when viewed from the side (concavity at the posterior aspect of the spine (cf kyphosis). Lordosis cervicis and lordosis lumbalis are the respective Terminologia Anatomica term...

Facet joint arthropathy

Facet joint arthropathy (also known as facet joint arthrosis) is a common cause of low back pain and is most commonly due to osteoarthritis. It occurs from facet joint chondral loss, osteophyte formation and hypertrophy of the articular processes that may cause spinal canal stenosis in severe ca...

Arterial vasocorona

The arterial vasocorona is part of the spinal cord blood supply and is formed by pial anastomoses between the anterior and posterior spinal arteries on the surface of the spinal cord. It encircles the cord and supplies the peripheral lateral aspect of the spinal cord. Engorgement of arterial v...

Flame sign (spinal cord metastasis)

The flame sign has been described as a helpful MRI sign of spinal cord metastases, enabling them to be distinguished from other enhancing spinal cord lesions (e.g. ependymoma, astrocytoma and hemangioblastoma) 1. Radiographic features MRI The flame sign is seen on sagittal post contrast T1 w...

Rim sign (spinal cord metastasis)

The rim sign has been described as a helpful MRI sign of spinal cord metastases, enabling them to be distinguished from other enhancing spinal cord lesions (e.g. ependymoma and astrocytoma). Radiographic features MRI The rim sign is seen on sagittal post contrast T1 weighted imaging of the s...

Spinal subependymoma

Spinal subependymomas are very rare low-grade tumors (WHO I) of the spinal cord. Like intracranial subependymomas, that are far more common, spinal subependymomas are slow-growing, discrete tumors with little if any contrast enhancement. Epidemiology Due to the small number of cases reported ...

Retro-odontoid pseudotumor

Retro-odontoid pseudotumors, also known as periodontoid pseudotumors, are non-neoplastic soft tissue masses adjacent to the odontoid process (dens) of C2, which can cause cervicomedullary compression. Epidemiology The prevalence of retro-odontoid soft tissue thickening, particularly with miner...

Subaxial cervical spine injury classification

The subaxial cervical spine injury classification (SLIC) system and severity score is a system for cervical spine trauma that helps guide treatment and predicts prognosis. Classification Three parameters are assessed, two being radiologic determined and the last being a clinical assessment 1. ...

ASAS classification criteria - active sacroiliitis on MRI

The Assessment in SpondyloArthritis International Society (ASAS) classification criteria, published in 2009 1 with a revised consensus definition of a positive MRI (active sacroiliitis) in 2016 2, utilizes imaging features of the sacroiliac joints on x-ray and MRI as one of many criteria for the...

Suboccipital triangle

The suboccipital triangles are a paired triangular-shaped space formed by the configuration of three paired muscles in the posterior neck between the occipital bone, C1 and C2. Gross Anatomy The suboccipital triangle has an inferomedial pointing apex (pointing towards the nuchal ligament) form...

Pyogenic spondylitis

Pyogenic spondylitis refers to infections of the spine which involve the vertebrae, intervertebral disc, paraspinal soft tissue, or epidural space 1,2. It is a broad term that includes vertebral osteomyelitis, spondylodiscitis, and epidural abscess. This article is a general discussion of pyoge...

Tuberculous spondylitis vs pyogenic spondylitis

Tuberculous spondylitis and pyogenic spondylitis are both common causes of spinal infection. Imaging findings of these two diseases can be challenging to distinguish, yet crucial because the treatments for these infections are particularly different 2. Radiographic features Useful distinguishi...

Enthesophyte

Enthesophytes (less commonly, enthesiophytes) are bony proliferations (spurs) that develop at an enthesis, that is at the attachment of a ligament, tendon or articular capsule onto bone. They are oriented along the direction of pull and develop in response to repetitive mechanical stress or a mo...

Osteophyte

Osteophytes are cartilage-capped bony proliferations (bony spurs) that most commonly develop at the margins of a synovial joint as a response to articular cartilage damage, as seen very commonly in degenerative joint disease. Central osteophytes can develop from cartilage lesions within a joint....

Adrenomyeloneuropathy

Adrenomyeloneuropathy is a form of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy characterized by pronounced involvement of the spinal cord with only minor involvement of the cerebral white matter. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation depends on whether or not there is also cerebral involvement. In ...

Intradural extramedullary spinal tumors (mnemonic)

Useful mnemonics to remember the differential diagnoses for intradural extramedullary spinal neoplasms include the following: No More Spinal Masses MNM Mnemonics No More Spinal Masses N: neurofibroma M: meningioma S: schwannoma M: metastasis MnM This simplified mnemonic, as in M&M cand...

Intramedullary spinal masses (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the differential diagnoses of intramedullary spinal masses is: I HEAL Mnemonic I: infarction H: hemangioblastoma E: ependymoma A: astrocytoma L: lipoma

Posterior vertebral scalloping (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the differential diagnoses for posterior vertebral scalloping is: SALMON Mnemonic S: spinal cord tumor (e.g. astrocytoma, ependymoma, schwannoma) A: achondroplasia, acromegaly L: Loeys-Dietz syndrome (and other connective tissue disorders) M: Marfan's syndrome...

Hopkins syndrome

Hopkins syndrome is a rare poliomyelitis-like neurological syndrome that occurs following an episode of acute asthma. Clinical presentation It usually manifests as flaccid paralysis of one or more limbs, several days or weeks following an episode of acute asthma. Pathology The pathogenesis i...

Facet joint vacuum phenomenon

Facet joint vacuum phenomenon or degenerative intrafacetal gas is a feature that can be seen on spinal imaging in facet joint arthropathy as part of degenerative spondylosis. Radiographic features Signal characteristics are those of air and are T1: low signal T2: low signal Differential di...

Spinal infection

Spinal infections are an important but relatively uncommon cause of back pain. Clinical presentation Patients may present with back pain, fevers, or neurological deficit. Disease progression normally is insidious and non-traumatic onset with constant non-position-dependent pain 1. Risk fact...

Red and yellow flags for guiding imaging of lower back pain

Lower back pain (also known as lumbago) is very common and is often referred for imaging. However, the vast majority of cases are due to benign self-limiting causes which do not require imaging and resolve with conservative measures. Numerous authors have described various methods for supporting...

Ligamentum flavum hypertrophy

Ligamentum flavum hypertrophy refers to abnormal thickening of the ligamentum flavum. If severe, it can be associated with spinal canal stenosis. Pathology It is thought to be mostly from fibrosis caused by the accumulation of mechanical stress with the aging process, especially along the dors...

Festooned dura (CSF leak)

The festooned appearance of the spinal dural sac has been described in cases of CSF leak resulting in the combination of epidural fluid and craniospinal hypotension/hypovolemia. The theca collapses down upon the cord but kept attached at multiple points by the epidural ligaments 1.

Aggressive vertebral hemangioma

Aggressive vertebral hemangiomata are a rare form of vertebral hemangiomata where significant vertebral expansion, extra-osseous component with epidural extension, disturbance of blood flow, and occasionally compression fractures can be present causing spinal cord and/or nerve root compression 1...

Flat back syndrome

Flat back syndrome (FBS) refers to the decrease or absence of the normal lumbar lordosis resulting primarily in chronic lumbar pain. Terminology Flat back syndrome is a different condition from straight back syndrome and the two should not be confused or conflated. Clinical presentation Mos...

Imaging psoas sign (spondylodiscitis)

The imaging psoas sign is an MRI finding specific for spondylodiscitis and is seen as T2 hyperintensity in the psoas major muscle. The sign has a high sensitivity (92%) and specificity (92%) for spondylodiscitis and in the clinical context of a suspected infective process of the spine supports c...

Inverted Mercedes-Benz sign

The inverted Mercedes-Benz sign refers to the shape taken on by a spinal subdural hematoma on axial imaging at the level of the denticulate ligaments, best visualized on MRI. A pair of denticulate ligaments and the dorsal septum constitute the three radiating spikes of the sign, while blood expa...

Spinal subdural hematoma

Spinal subdural hematomas (SSDH) are much less common than epidural hematomas; however, progression of symptoms due to compression tends to be faster 1. Epidemiology Spinal subdural hematomas are a rare entity, much more so than epidural hematomas. In a meta-analysis of over 600 spinal hematom...

Lumbar epidural gas

Lumbar epidural gas is a rare phenomenon where gas locules are observed within the central canal of the lumbar spine. It can arise from a number of factors: due to regional degenerative disc disease with or without dorsal epidural disc migration: thought to be from gas leaking from the disc spa...

AO Spine classification of upper cervical injuries

The AO Spine classification of upper cervical injuries is a concise and comprehensive system for categorizing the spectrum of traumatic bony and ligamentous injuries involving the occipital condyles, atlas (C1), or axis (C2). Usage The AO Spine upper cervical classification system is relativel...

AO Spine classification systems

The AO Spine classification systems is a group of imaging morphology-based classification system, combined with clinical factors for injury of spinal trauma. It is designed to be a simple and reproducible method of describing injury patterns. AO Spine has published four injury classification sy...

Spinal hematoma

Spinal hematomas are a rare clinical entity and are often idiopathic. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial, lest they cause permanent neurological damage. Identifying the location of the hematoma is important for treatment, as is distinguishing it, to the extent possible, from other entit...

Lipiodol

Lipiodol (also known as ethiodized oil) is an oil-based iodinated contrast medium that was historically used for myelography and hysterosalpingography 1. It was later superseded by newer, less hazardous, agents, and now is used primarily as a therapeutic agent. Guerbet is now the sole manufactur...

Filar cyst

A filar cyst is an incidental finding on neonatal lumbar sonography located in the filum terminale of the spinal cord. It is considered a normal variant and is often confused for a ventriculus terminalis, a smooth dilated cavity of the central canal, located within the conus medullaris. The inc...

Spinal stenosis

Spinal stenosis is a condition in which a portion of the spinal canal narrows to the point at which it can exert pressure on the nerves that travel through the spine. Spinal stenosis is not to be confused with foraminal stenosis, which is the narrowing of the foramina with subsequent compressio...

White matter

The white matter is the substance of the brain and spinal cord that contains the fiber tracts of neuronal axons in the central nervous system. The term is due to the paler color of the lipid-rich myelin that encases the axons in the tracts compared to the grey matter, which contains predominantl...

Grey matter

The grey matter is the substance of the brain and spinal cord that contains the neuronal cell bodies of the central nervous system. Within the cerebrum the two main locations of grey matter are on the surface of the gyri (the cortical grey matter) and the nuclei of the basal ganglia. The brains...

Pseudosinus tract

A pseudosinus tract is a normal fibrous cord extending from the coccyx to an overlying sacral dimple. These have no associated mass and contain no fluid (if CSF drainage is occurring via the sacral dimple, then a true dorsal dermal sinus should be considered). Diagnosis Ultrasound Hypoechoic ...

Dorsal cord syndrome

Dorsal cord syndrome, also known as posterior spinal cord syndrome, is one of the incomplete cord syndromes resulting from pathology affecting the posterior part of the spinal cord, particularly the dorsal columns and potentially (in larger lesions) the lateral corticospinal tracts 1. Clinical...

Incomplete cord syndromes

Incomplete cord syndromes encompass a variety of patterns of cross-sectional partial disruption of the spinal cord. Due to the spatial segregation of various ascending and descending tracts within the cord, regional dysfunction results in predictable and distinct clinical patterns of deficit. As...

Labeled imaging anatomy cases

This article lists a series of labeled imaging anatomy cases by body region and modality. Brain CT head: non-contrast axial CT head: non-contrast coronal CT head: non-contrast sagittal CT head: non-contrast axial with clinical questions CT head: angiogram axial CT head: angiogram coronal ...

Posterior vertebral fusion anomalies

Posterior vertebral fusion anomalies are relatively common and should not be mistaken for fractures. They are thought to be both developmental and pathological (e.g. spondylolysis) but are typically asymptomatic and incidental, and considered as anatomical variants. There are six types of poster...

Vertebral artery loop

Vertebral artery loops occur when a portion of the vertebral artery contains an unusual coil. It can be a rare anatomical variant or can be acquired. Epidemiology Vertebral artery loops tend to be mostly diagnosed in the 5th and 6th decades. Its prevalence is uncertain but is thought to be pre...

Myelography

Myelography is an imaging procedure performed to evaluate the subarachnoid spaces within the spinal canal. Fluoroscopic, CT or MR imaging is performed after the intrathecal injection of contrast media, usually under fluoroscopic or CT guidance. History The concept of using a contrast agent to...

Compressive myelopathy

Compressive myelopathy refers to neurological deficits that result from compression of the spinal cord. It most commonly occurs in the cervical spinal cord. Pathology Any cause of spinal canal stenosis including disc herniation, osteophytes, spinal osteochondroma, extradural mass, paravertebr...

Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy

Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is a form of muscular dystrophy characterized by extremely variable degrees of facial, scapular and lower limb muscle involvement. Epidemiology It is considered one of the more common hereditary muscular disorders with a prevalence of ~1 in 8,000. ...

CSF-venous fistula

CSF-venous fistulas are rare and only recently recognized causes of spontaneous intracranial hypotension. They are direct communication between the spinal subarachnoid space and epidural veins allowing for the loss of CSF directly into the circulation and can be either iatrogenic or spontaneous ...

Hanging and strangulation (trauma)

Hanging and strangulation are injuries involving constricting pressure applied to the neck. The vast majority are sustained as a result of attempted suicide. Epidemiology In America, hangings are the second most common form of suicide after firearm use. In other parts of the world due to the r...

Adjacent segment degeneration

Adjacent segment degeneration is a common complication of spinal fusion occurring at the adjacent unfused level above or below the fused segment. Epidemiology It is usually encountered in the cervical spine or lumbar spine and occurs with an incidence of 2-4% per year 4. Pathology The under...

Adjacent level ossification

Adjacent level ossification is a complication of anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) with anterior plate stabilization. It represents pathological heterotopic ossification of the soft tissues above or below the ends of the plate, contiguous with the adjacent vertebral body. It occurs ...

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF)

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) is a commonly performed spinal fusion procedure for the decompression of the cervical cord due to disc protrusions and posteriorly projecting osteophytes. It is not to be confused with an ACDA (anterior cervical disc arthroplasty). Indications An...

Ganglioneuroblastoma

A ganglioneuroblastoma is a transitional tumor of the sympathetic nervous system which lies on the intermediate spectrum of disease between a well-differentiated, low-grade, ganglioneuroma and an undifferentiated, hight-grade, neuroblastoma 6. Epidemiology They are seen more commonly in childr...

Transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF)

Transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) is a spinal fusion procedure performed as an alternative to posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) when posterior decompression of the spinal canal is not required 1. Indications See: lumbar interbody overview (overview). Contraindications ext...

Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF)

Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF) is a spinal fusion procedure usually performed at L5/S1 or L4/5. The anterior approach is often selected in preference to other lumbar interbody fusion approaches due to it providing a superior view of the vertebrae as well as avoiding damage to posterio...

Cervical spine series

The cervical spine series is a set of radiographs taken to investigate the bony structures of the cervical spine, albeit commonly replaced by the CT, the cervical spine series is an essential trauma radiograph for all radiographers to understand. Indications Cervical spine radiographs are indi...

Posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF)

Posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) is a commonly performed spinal fusion procedure that can be performed at a single level or multiple adjacent levels. Indications See: lumbar interbody overview (overview). Contraindications extensive epidural fibrosis arachnoiditis infection 3 Proc...

Spinal fusion (overview)

Spinal fusion is a broad term to denote the joining of two or more adjacent vertebral segments. Fusion can be congenital or acquired as a direct result of disease or deliberately following spinal surgery. Congenital fusion Fusion of two or more adjacent segments is encountered either as an is...

Lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF)

Lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF), also commonly known by the proprietary names eXtreme Lateral Interbody Fusion (XLIF) or Direct Lateral Interbody Fusion (DLIF) 3, is one of many approaches to lumbar interbody fusion and is performed from T12/L1 to L4/5. Indications See: lumbar interbody...

Ultrasound-guided spinal anesthesia

With the growing incidence of obesity in the western world, ultrasound-guided anesthesia is becoming more common. Spinal anesthesia is traditionally administered by identifying relevant surface anatomy and imaging is rarely used for pre-procedural identification of structures. Indications low...

Uncinate process of the cervical spine

The uncinate process of the cervical spine is a hook-shaped process found bilaterally on the superolateral margin of the cervical vertebral bodies of C3-C7. The uncinate processes are more anteriorly positioned in the upper cervical spine and more posteriorly located in the lower cervical spine...

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