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Ultrasound-guided spinal anesthesia

With the growing incidence of obesity in the western world, ultrasound-guided anesthesia is becoming more common. Spinal anesthesia is traditionally administered by identifying relevant surface anatomy and imaging is rarely used for pre-procedural identification of structures. Indications low...

Uncinate process of the cervical spine

The uncinate process of the cervical spine is a hook-shaped process found bilaterally on the superolateral margin of the cervical vertebral bodies of C3-C7. The uncinate processes are more anteriorly positioned in the upper cervical spine and more posteriorly located in the lower cervical spine...

Spinal canal

The spinal canal, also known as the vertebral canal, is the cavity within the vertebral column that contains the thecal sac and spinal cord. The canal consists of a series of vertebral foramina (the holes at the center of the vertebra) linked with discoligamentous structures. Gross anatomy The...

AO Spine classification of sacral injuries

The AO Spine classification of sacral injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying sacral injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. The AO Spine sacral classification is broken into three subsections that follow a hierarchical structure similar t...

AO Spine classification of subaxial injuries

The AO Spine classification of subaxial injuries aims to simplify and universalise the classification of subaxial cervical spine fractures and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. Usage Although its existence is widely known among the relevant subspecialty groups, its day-to-da...

Spinal pia mater

The spinal pia mater (or pia mater spinalis) is the innermost layer of the spinal meninges. In congruence to the cranial pia being closely related to the surface of the brain, the spinal pia is closely related to the surface of the spinal cord. Gross anatomy The spinal pia mater is continuou...

Nerve root enhancement

Nerve root enhancement is a phenomenon described on post-contrast MRI scans that can be observed in a number of situations. Common causes post-operative nerve root enhancement 6 arachnoiditis leptomeningeal metastases disseminated spinal leptomeningeal metastases neurolymphomatosis HIV va...

Benign notochordal cell tumor

Benign notochordal cell tumors are vertebral lesions that are usually asymptomatic and discovered incidentally on imaging of the head or spine. As this is a poorly-recognized entity, it can often be confused with aggressive vertebral lesions, such as a chordoma, when it is seen on imaging. Term...

AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries

The AO Spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries is a commonly used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification system. The current AO Spine system (2013) supercedes the more complex and less reproducible AO Magerl classification 1. Unlike the other widely used system, the thoracolumbar i...

Cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the clear liquid that surrounds and bathes the brain and spinal cord. Physiology Production Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the epithelium of the choroid plexus within the ventricular system and flows in the direction from the lateral ventricles to the third ve...

Cervical spine (flexion and extension views)

The cervical spine flexion and extension views demonstrate the seven vertebrae of the cervical spine when the patient is in a lateral position. Indications These views are specialized projections often requested to assess for spinal stability. Note, such functional views should not be perform...

Cervical spine (lateral view)

Cervical spine lateral view is a lateral projection of the cervical spine. As technology advances, computed tomography (CT) has replaced this projection, yet there remain many institutions (especially in rural areas) where CT is not readily available. Indications This projection helps to vis...

Cervical spine (odontoid view)

The odontoid or 'peg' projection, also known as the open mouth AP projection (or radiograph), is an AP projection of C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) with the patient's mouth open. Indications This view focuses primarily on the odontoid process of C2, and is useful in visualizing odontoid and Jefferso...

Scoliosis (lateral bending view)

Scoliosis lateral bending views are additional scoliosis projections accompanying the standard PA/AP and lateral views. Indications The aim of this view is to assess patients' lateral range of spinal motion 1 in the vertebral column as part of a scoliosis series. Patient position patient er...

Scoliosis (erect lateral view)

The scoliosis erect lateral view is performed to visualize the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of interest in profile. Indications This projection is done in cases of scoliosis and often done upon first presentation as a useful examination in identifying spondylolisthesis and the degree of kyph...

Scoliosis (PA/AP view)

The scoliosis posteroanterior/anteroposterior (PA/AP) view allows for visualizing the thoracic and lumbar vertebral bodies of interest. Indications This projection is used in determining scoliosis in patients and allows for the severity of lateral spinal curvature to be assessed 1. Patient po...

Scoliosis radiography

Scoliosis radiography is useful in identifying the degree of the scoliosis curvature (major/minor or primary/compensatory curves), as well as observing progression to determine the best treatment method 1. Indications Scoliosis radiographs are performed specifically when the disease is suspe...

Lumbar spine (flexion and extension views)

The lumbar spine flexion and extension views images the lumbar spine which consists of five vertebrae. Indications These views are specialized projections to provide functional tests 1 of lumbar spine instability, often in the context of spondylolisthesis. Patient position the patient is ...

Leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation

Leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation (LBSL) is a rare inherited autosomal recessive leukodystrophy characterized by slowly progressive pyramidal, cerebellar, and dorsal column dysfunction. Epidemiology Although considered rare, the exact prevalen...

Bladder impairment following spinal cord injury

A commonly used classification scheme used by urologists and rehabilitation specialists, described by Wein, classifies bladder impairment following spinal cord injury according to the level of injury: suprasacral (infrapontine) bladder - upper motor neuron lesion, releasing the sacral micturiti...

Bladder neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomy of the bladder is complex, described here is a summary of the co-ordination of micturition. The bladder acts as a reservoir normally storing 400-500 mL of urine under low pressure (<15 cmH2O) before voluntary voiding can occur at a socially-convenient time. Bladder filling and empt...

Spondylosis

Spondylosis (plural: spondyloses) is used as a broad descriptive term referring to degeneration of the spinal column from any cause 1; it is usually further qualified by the part of the spine affected, e.g. cervical spondylosis and lumbar spondylosis 1. Pathophysiology Spondylosis can be divid...

Vertebral levels (anatomical landmarks)

Many vertebral levels are associated with key anatomical landmarks. Below is a summary of vertebral levels and associated internal or surface anatomy. Please note that some texts differ slightly on certain levels and levels may be altered by patient positioning (supine versus erect) and patient ...

Spondyloptosis

Spondyloptosis is a term to denote grade V spondylolisthesis - a vertebra having slipped so far with respect to the vertebra below that the two endplates are no longer congruent. It is usually anterolisthesis of L5 on S1 but can be seen elsewhere rarely 1,2.

Wiltse classification (spondylolisthesis)

Spondylolisthesis can be classified according to broad etiologies as described by Wiltse in 1981 1. Typically when reporting studies with spondylolisthesis the Wiltse type is merely stated without referring to its number, whereas the grade of spondylolisthesis is explicitly stated: e.g. "Grade 1...

Cervical spine alignment

When assessing cervical spine alignment, look for four parallel lines connecting structures in the cervical spine: anterior vertebral line: anterior margin of the vertebral bodies posterior vertebral line: posterior margin of the vertebral bodies (also known as George's line) spi...

Catheter-associated mass

Catheter-associated mass, also known as catheter tip granuloma, is a relatively rare complication related to an intrathecal catheter. Terminology Although the term catheter tip granuloma is commonly found in the literature, some favor the more general term catheter-associated mass as they actu...

Inverted "V" sign (spinal cord)

The inverted "V" sign, also known as the inverted rabbit ears sign, is a radiological sign described in subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. It refers to the appearance of the spinal cord on axial MRI slices 1-3. On these slices in a patient with subacute combined degeneration of...

Spinal subdural space

The spinal subdural space is a potential area between the spinal arachnoid mater and the spinal dura mater. Unlike the cranial subdural space, the spinal subdural space does not contain any bridging veins, and thus hemorrhage into this area only occurs in very rare cases 1. It only contains a ...

Dorsal root ganglion

The dorsal root ganglia are an enlargement of the dorsal root of spinal nerves representing the cell bodies of the primary somatosensory neurons. Gross anatomy Each dorsal root ganglion is oval and proportional in size to its related root. They are usually found just distal to the intervertebr...

Movements of the spine

Movements of the spine are possible due to intervertebral discs, and with the fulcrum of movement occurring primarily around the nucleus pulposus. Specialized motion occurs at the atlanto-occipital and atlantoaxial joints, which do not contain a disc. The spine (vertebral column) forms the cent...

Autonomic dysreflexia

Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a life-threatening condition prevalent amongst patients with high spinal cord injury (SCI) and may occur any time after injury. It is a syndrome characterized by an exaggerated reflex increase in blood pressure, usually accompanied by bradycardia in response to a st...

Bone within a bone appearance (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the possible etiologies of a bone within a bone appearance is: GHOST DRAGON Mnemonic G: growth arrest lines H: heavy metals, hypoparathyroidism, hypothyroidism O: osteopetrosis S: sickle cell anemia, scurvy, syphilis T: thalassemia, tuberculosis D: disease o...

Ventral horn

The ventral horn of the spinal cord is one of the grey longitudinal columns found within the spinal cord. It contains the cell bodies of the lower motor neurons which have axons leaving via the ventral spinal roots on their way to innervate muscle fibers. Gross anatomy On transverse section of...

Lateral horn

The lateral horn of the spinal cord is the small lateral projection of grey matter located between the dorsal horn and ventral horn and contain the neuronal cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system. Gross anatomy On transverse section of the spinal cord, the spinal grey matter is describe...

Magnetic resonance neurography

Magnetic resonance neurography (MRN) is a relatively new non-invasive imaging technique for dedicated assessment of peripheral nerves. It is used to assess peripheral nerve entrapments and impingements as well as localization and grading of nerve injuries and lesions. Dedicated high-resolution...

Central canal

The central canal is the longitudinal CSF-filled space which runs the entire length of the spinal cord and represents the most caudal portion of the ventricular system. It is lined by ependyma. Gross anatomy The central canal spans the length of the spinal cord from the caudal angle of the fou...

Lumbar cistern

The lumbar cistern refers to the subarachnoid space in the lower lumbar spinal canal. The cistern is an enlargement of the subarachnoid space in the dural sac, distal to the conus medullaris. It contains cerebrospinal fluid and the nerve roots of the cauda equina. As the conus (usually) termina...

Spinal subarachnoid space

The spinal subarachnoid space is the space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the spine and is continuous with the intracranial subarachnoid space. It communicates with the intracranial subarachnoid space via the foramen magnum and ends at the level of the S2 vertebra. It is a relat...

Spinal dura mater

The spinal dura mater is the outermost layer of the meninges that surround the spinal cord. Gross Anatomy The spinal dura mater is a fibrous, non-adherent, tough layer surrounding the spinal cord. Unlike the intracranial dura mater, it only has a single layer which is continuous with the inner...

Third condyle

The third condyle, also known as condylus tertius or median occipital condyle, is a rare anatomic variant of the occipital condyles. It is a small separate ossicle at the anteromedial margin of the occipital condyle formed by the failure of the embryonic proatlas (4th occipital sclerotome) to un...

White matter tracts of the spinal cord

The spinal cord has numerous tracts of white matter that ascend and descend in the peripheral substance of the cord. They can be divided by their location and function: anterolateral columns anterior corticospinal tract medial longitudinal fasiculus spinothalamic tracts lateral spinothalami...

Arachnoiditis ossificans

Arachnoiditis ossificans is considered a sequela of chronic arachnoiditis where there is a development of calcification-ossification of the arachnoid membrane usually of the thoracic and lumbar spines. It is an extremely rare cause of spinal canal stenosis and consequent neurological compromise....

Gracile fasciculus

The gracile fasciculus, also known as the fasciculus gracilis (plural: fasciculi graciles) or column of Goll, represents the medial portion of the dorsal columns and carries input from below and including T7 1. Function The gracile fasciculus is responsible for transmitting vibration, consciou...

Dorsal columns

The dorsal columns, or posterior columns, are ascending pathways primarily concerned with sensory function. They are responsible for transmitting vibration, conscious proprioception, and fine (discriminative) touch 1,2. The dorsal columns are divided two tracts, which are discussed separately 2...

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), mediated by the sympathetic chain (trunk) and ganglia, is a major division of the autonomic nervous system. It is composed of general visceral afferent and efferent axons that allow for involuntary control of bodily functions via the hypothalamus. The over...

Hematomyelia

Hematomyelia refers to the presence of intramedullary hemorrhage or hematoma within the spinal cord. This is distinct from extramedullary hemorrhage such as that seen in epidural hematoma. Pathology Although hematomyelia can occur in the setting of trauma, the term is generally used to signify...

Cervical disc replacement

A cervical disc replacement (also known as a spacer) is a prosthesis surgically inserted in the native disc space. It is invariably inserted for symptomatic cervical spondylosis. Disc replacements can be placed either in isolation or along with anterior fixation. The appearances are varied wi...

Systemic lupus erythematosus (CNS manifestations)

Central nervous system manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (CNS lupus) describe a wide variety of neuropsychiatric manifestations that are secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in the central nervous system (CNS). For a general discussion, and for links to other system spec...

Meningocele manqué

Meningocele manqué (from French, literally "missed meningocele") is a rare condition characterized by focal dorsal tethering of the spinal cord. The term is used to designate a meningocele which failed to develop and became atretic. Epidemiology It has been reported in neonates, but median age...

Intervertebral foramen

The intervertebral foramina, commonly also called the neural foramina, allow passage of structures out of and into the vertebral canal. Gross anatomy Boundaries anterior: lower posterolateral aspect of a vertebral body and the intervertebral disc below, in the thoracic and lumbar regions. in...

Denticulate ligaments

The denticulate ligaments are bilateral triangular lateral extensions of pia mater that anchor the spinal cord to the dura mater. They are formed by pia mater of the spinal cord coursing in-between the dorsal and ventral nerve roots bilaterally. They function to provide stability to the spinal ...

Spinal hydatid disease

Spinal hydatid disease is an uncommon manifestation of hydatid disease, caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus, or less commonly E. alveolaris or E. multilocularis, and describes a spectrum of disease involving the spinal cord, the spine, or both. For a general discussion, and fo...

Coccidioidomycosis

Coccidioidomycosis refers to an infection caused by the dimorphic fungus Coccidioides spp., usually localized to the lungs. This disease is not to be confused with the similarly named paracoccidioidomycosis. Epidemiology The most common species of Coccidioides are Coccidioides immitis and Cocc...

Laminectomy

Laminectomy is the resection of the lamina of a vertebral body. By removing the lamina the spinal canal is decompressed reducing pressure on the spinal cord / cauda equina. Terminology When only one of the lamina is resected the terms hemilaminectomy or unilateral hemilaminectomy can be used d...

Vertebra

The vertebra (plural: vertebrae) is the fundamental segmental unit of the vertebral column (also known as the spine). Gross anatomy Vertebrae, apart from those that are atypical, have a similar basic structure which can be described as an anterior vertebral body and a posterior neural (or vert...

Paracondylar process

Paracondylar process is a rare anatomical variant of the occipital bone, where a bony exostosis extends caudally from the paracondylar region (lateral to the native occipital condyles), typically articulating with the superior surface of a transverse process of the atlas. This may be unilateral ...

Epitransverse process of the atlas

Epitransverse process is a rare anatomical variant of the atlas, consisting of a bony exostosis which extends cephalad from the transverse process of the atlas to articulate with the occipital bone. This process sometimes meets with a paracondylar process from the occipital bone, forming a pseud...

Interspinous processes spacer

An interspinous processes spacer (also known as a decompression spacer or interspinous posterior device) is a device implanted between spinous processes to open narrowed exiting foraminal nerve channels to treat lumbar radiculopathy caused by spinal stenosis. It is used as an alternative to lam...

Spinal cord stimulator

Spinal cord stimulators, also known as dorsal column stimulators, are surgically placed devices to aid with symptom relief in individuals with chronic neurological pain (e.g. failed back syndrome, brachial plexopathy, complex regional pain syndrome). It uses low voltage electrical current deliv...

Corpectomy

Corpectomy refers to the removal of one or more vertebral bodies and is followed by spinal fusion. Indication compressive myelopathy secondary to, for example, retrovertebral hypertrophic osteoarthritis, tumor, infection, severe trauma Contraindications multilevel corpectomy in patients wit...

Neurenteric canal of Kovalevsky

The neurenteric canal or canal of Kovalevsky is the transient communication of the amnion through notochordal canal to the yolk sac during notochordal formation at day 16-17. Abnormalities during this stage produce the neurenteric cyst spectrum.

Cervical enlargement

The cervical enlargement of the spinal cord is the source of the spinal nerves that contribute to the brachial plexus and supply the upper limbs. Gross anatomy It is one of two symmetrical enlargements which occupy the segments of the limb plexuses, the other being the lumbosacral enlargement ...

Diffuse T1 bone marrow signal loss

Diffuse T1 vertebral bone marrow signal loss is associated with replacement of fatty marrow by edema or cellular tissue. Radiographic features MRI T1-weighted imaging without fat suppression is one of the most important sequences for distinguishing between normal and abnormal bone marrow. Ab...

Matterhorn sign

The Matterhorn sign is a descriptive sign for a calcified disc herniation that impales the dural sac and sometimes the cord, typically located in the thoracic spine. History and etymology This sign is named after one of the most iconic mountains in the Alps: the Matterhorn.

Transpyloric plane

The transpyloric plane, also known as Addison's plane, is an imaginary axial plane located midway between the jugular notch and superior border of pubic symphysis, at approximately the level of L1 vertebral body. It an important landmark as many key structures are visualized at this level, altho...

Cervical spine (PA oblique view)

The PA oblique cervical spine projections are supplementary views to the standard AP, odontoid and lateral images in the cervical spine series and are always done bilaterally for comparison purposes. The PA oblique projection is preferred as it reduces radiation dose to the thyroid 1, compared t...

Cervical spine (AP view)

The anteroposterior (AP) cervical spine projection is part of the cervical spine series. Indications This projection helps to visualize pathology relating to C3-C7 in the anatomical position, demonstrating any compression fractures, clay-shoveler fractures and herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP) ...

Cervical spine (AP oblique view)

The AP oblique cervical spine projections are supplementary views to the standard AP, odontoid and lateral images in the cervical spine series and are always done bilaterally for comparison purposes. However, the PA oblique projection is preferred as it reduces radiation dose to the thyroid 1 co...

Lateral hemivertebra

A lateral hemivertebra is a form of hemivertebra which occurs when one of the two chondrification centers fails to develop. They can be single or multiple and usually associated in the formation of scoliosis. Pathology Subtypes Various subtypes have been described incarcerated hemivertebra ...

Cortical bone

The outer shell of compact bone is called cortical bone or cortex. It is formed by compact bone which is one of the two macroscopic forms of bone, the other being cancellous bone. Gross anatomy Cortical bone contains Haversian systems (osteons) which contain a central Haversian canal surround...

Sacroiliac joint (PA oblique view)

The posteroanterior (PA) oblique sacroiliac joint view demonstrates the sacroiliac joints (SIJs) in an open profile. It is commonly used in conjunction with the sacroiliac AP view. Indications This projection examines both left and right sacroiliac joints for comparison purposes in the evalua...

Sacroiliac joint (AP sacrum view)

The AP sacrum projection is part of the sacroiliac series that includes an oblique projection (PA/AP) of the joint on both sides. Although usually taken as an AP projection it can also be taken PA with a reverse caudal central ray angulation of 30° to 35° when patients cannot assume supine posit...

Thoracic spine series

The thoracic spine series is comprised of two standard projections along with a range of additional projections depending on clinical indications. The series is often utilized in the context of trauma, postoperative imaging and for chronic conditions. Radiographs of the thoracic spine are consi...

Sacrum and coccyx (lateral view)

The sacrum and coccyx lateral view is utilized to demonstrate the most distal region of the spine in a lateral position. Indications This projection is commonly used in conjunction with the AP projection or can be used as a sole projection, depending on department protocols. It helps to visual...

Lumbar spine series

The lumbar spine series is comprised of two standard projections along with a range of additional projections depending on clinical indications. The series is often utilized in the context of trauma, postoperative imaging and for chronic conditions such as ankylosing spondylosis. Lumbar spine r...

Sacrum (AP view)

The sacrum anteroposterior (AP) view is used to demonstrate the sacrum and its articulations. The efficacy of this radiographic projection is debatable, with radiographers encouraged to follow department protocol when imaging this region 1. Indications This view can be utilized in the event o...

Coronal balance

Coronal balance is one of the features that needs to be assessed on long spine radiographs obtained for spinal deformity, particularly scoliosis. It measures whether or not the upper spine is located over the midline (normal) or off to one side. Measurement To assess coronal balance, a vertic...

Sagittal balance

Sagittal balance forms part of the plain radiographic assessment of spinal deformity including kyphotic or lordotic deformities and scoliosis. Usage There are numerous ways of assessing this, using various bony landmarks and angles to evaluate whether or not a normal distribution of weight and...

Lumbar spine (lateral view)

The lumbar spine lateral view images the lumbar spine which generally consists of five vertebrae (see: lumbosacral transitional vertebra). Indications This projection shows an orthogonal view of the AP/PA view and is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postoperatively, and for ...

Central sacral vertical line

The central sacral vertical line (CSVL) is used in the assessment of spinal scoliosis. It is a line constructed on frontal films of the spine and pelvis to measure coronal balance, drawn as follows: a line connecting the top of the iliac crests is drawn a second line is drawn perpendicular t...

Lumbar spine (AP/PA view)

The lumbar spine anteroposterior or posteroanterior view images the lumbar spine in its anatomical position. The lumbar spine generally consists of five vertebrae (see: lumbosacral transitional vertebra). Indications This projection is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postop...

Thoracic spine (lateral view)

The thoracic spine lateral view images the thoracic spine, which consists of twelve vertebrae. Indications This projection is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postoperatively, and for chronic conditions. It can help to visualize any compression fractures, subluxation or kyph...

Spinothalamic tracts

The spinothalamic tracts are ascending pathways in the spinal cord primarily concerned with sensory function. They are responsible for transmitting pain, temperature, coarse (non-discriminative) touch and pressure sensations 1. Unlike other tracts main spinal tracts, the spinothalamic tracts de...

Thoracic spine (AP view)

The thoracic spine anteroposterior (AP) view images the thoracic spine, which consists of twelve vertebrae. Indications This projection is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postoperatively, and for chronic conditions. It can help to visualize any compression fractures, sublux...

Anterior spinothalamic tract

The anterior spinothalamic tract, also known as the ventral spinothalamic fasciculus, is an ascending pathway located anteriorly within the spinal cord, primarily responsible for transmitting coarse touch and pressure. The lateral spinothalamic tract (discussed separately), in contrast, primar...

Lateral spinothalamic tract

The lateral spinothalamic tract, also known as the lateral spinothalamic fasciculus, is an ascending pathway located anterolaterally within the peripheral white matter of the spinal cord. It is primarily responsible for transmitting pain and temperature as well as coarse touch. The anterior sp...

Anatomy curriculum

The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists. General anatomy Neuroanatomy Head and neck anatomy Thoracic anatomy Abdominal and pelvic anatomy Spinal anat...

Terminal myelocystocele

Terminal myelocystoceles are an uncommon form of spinal dysraphism representing marked dilatation of the central canal of the spinal cord, herniating posteriorly through a dorsal spinal defect. The result is a skin-covered mass in the lower lumbar region, consisting of an ependyma-lined sac. E...

Cervical spine (swimmer's lateral view)

Cervical spine swimmer's lateral view is a modified lateral projection of the cervical spine to visualize the C7/T1 junction. As technology advances, computed tomography has replaced this projection, yet there remain many institutions (especially in rural areas) where computed tomography is no...

Lateral meningocele syndrome

Lateral meningocele syndrome is an extremely rare hereditary connective tissue disorder characterized by multiple lateral lumbar meningoceles, distinctive facial features, joint hypermobility, hypotonia, skeletal abnormalities, congenital cardiovascular malformations, urogenital anomalies and ne...

Disc osteophyte complex

Disc osteophyte complex (also known as disc osteophyte bar) is a term used on MRI of the cervical spine to denote the presence of disc protrusion and/or marginal endplate osteophytes resulting in narrowing of the cervical canal. The term was introduced early in the practice of MRI as distinguish...

Rubrospinal tract

The rubrospinal tract contains neurons that carry signals from the corticorubral tract. The tract is thought to excite flexor muscles and inhibit extensor muscles. Gross anatomy Central connections The magnocellular portion of the red nucleus gives rise to the rubrospinal tract. It decussates...

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