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Corticorubral tract

The corticorubral tract contains neurons that connect the primary motor and sensory areas to the red nucleus. The rubrospinal tract then descends through the spinal cord. The tract is thought to excite flexor muscles and inhibit extensor muscles. Gross anatomy Central connections The corti...

Difference in vertical mid-vertical angle (lumbar spine)

The difference in vertical mid-vertical angle is the difference in the vertical mid-vertebral angle (VMVA) between the caudal segment angle and the adjacent cephalad segment angle of the three most caudal segments of the lumbar spine as measured on a mid-sagittal MRI or a lateral radiograph. Ra...

Intercristal line

The intercristal line (also known as Jacoby’s Line or Tuffier’s Line) is a horizontal line drawn across the highest points of both the iliac crests in an anteroposterior (AP) lumbar radiograph 1,2. The intercristal line most often intersects the body of L4 or its inferior endplate in men and th...

Spinocerebellar tract

The spinocerebellar tracts are afferent neurons that convey proprioceptive data from the spinal cord to the cerebellum. There are anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts, also eponymously named the Gowers tract and Flechsig tract respectively. Both the anterior and posterior spinocerebella...

Lateral corticospinal tract

The lateral corticospinal tract is formed at the level of the of the medullary pyramids when the majority (90%) of descending corticospinal tract fibers decussate. The remaining 10% do not decussate and form the much smaller anterior corticospinal tract. A few non-decussated fibers may enter the...

Anterior corticospinal tract

The anterior corticospinal tract is formed at the level of the of the medullary pyramids, where the majority (90%) of descending corticospinal tract fibers decussate to form the lateral corticospinal tract. The majority of the remaining non-decussating 10% of fibers form the much smaller anterio...

Spinal instability neoplastic score (SINS)

The spinal instability neoplastic score (SINS) helps to assess tumor related instability of the vertebral column. It has been shown to be useful in guiding the mobilization or operative management of patients with neoplastic spinal disease. Studies have reported good inter-observer agreement am...

Cervical spine floating pillar

A floating pillar, also referred as pedicolaminar fracture-separation injury, is characterized by fractures through the pedicle and lamina of a cervical spine vertebrae creating a free-floating articular pillar fragment. It is an unstable cervical spine fracture that results from hyperflexion–la...

Spinal meninges

The spinal meninges (singular: meninx) are contained within the spinal canal and encase the spinal cord, spinal nerve roots and the cauda equina. Gross anatomy They are composed of three layers (outer to inner) dura mater (also known as theca or pachymeninx) arachnoid mater pia mater Colle...

Cervical spine injury

Cervical spine injuries can involve the cervical vertebral column, intervertebral discs and cervical spine ligaments, and/or cervical spinal cord. The cervical spine accounts for ~50% of all spinal injuries. Epidemiology 5-10% of patients with blunt trauma have a cervical spine injury 1. Pa...

Diffuse leptomeningeal glioneuronal tumor

Diffuse leptomeningeal glioneuronal tumor (previously known as disseminated oligodendroglial-like leptomeningeal tumor of childhood) is a rare and only recently described tumor of the central nervous system. It typically presents with hydrocephalus secondary to prominent leptomeningeal enhanceme...

Epidural blood patch

Epidural blood patch is a treatment option for patients with craniospinal hypotension or post-lumbar puncture headaches. The procedure can be done blind or under fluoroscopic or CT guidance, and is performed predominantly by radiologists and anesthesiologists. Indications craniospinal hypoten...

Lumbar plexus roots (mnemonic)

A handy mnemonic to recall the roots of the lumbar plexus is: 2 from 1, 2 from 2, 2 from 3 Mnemonic 2 nerves from 1 root: ilioinguinal (L1), iliohypogastric (L1) 2 nerves from 2 roots: genitofemoral (L1/L2), lateral femoral cutaneous (L2/L3) 2 nerves from 3 roots: obturator (L2/L3/L4), femo...

Erector spinae muscles (mnemonic)

There are multiple handy mnemonics to recall the erector spinae muscles. They usually describe the position from lateral to medial. I Like Standing I Love Sex I Long for Spinach I Like Siri Mnemonic I: iliocostalis L: longissimus S: spinalis

Lumbar enlargement

The lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord corresponds to the mild increase in cross sectional area of the cord from the T11 level to the conus medullaris. It is enlarged due to the presence of the spinal nerve anterior rami which contribute to the lumbar and sacral plexuses.

Focal fatty deposits in bone marrow

Focal fatty deposits, marrow islands, and replacements in the bone marrow are well-defined focal fat islands within the bone marrow of the spine or other parts of the axial skeleton 1,2. Epidemiology Common in older individuals, related to age but not to sex. Associations Focal fatty deposit...

Transversospinalis muscle group

The transversospinalis muscle group is the deep layer of the intrinsic back muscles. These muscles lie between the transverse and spinous processes and are grouped by length of the fascicles, as well as region covered. The groups are rotatores, multifidus, and semispinalis. Gross anatomy Rotat...

Erector spinae group

The erector spinae group is the intermediate layer of the intrinsic muscles of the back. This group is made of three subgroups, with the group divisions occurring by location. spinalis subgroup is the most medial longissimus subgroup is between spinalis and iliocostalis iliocostalis subgroup ...

Dorsal epidural disc migration

Dorsal epidural disc migration represents, as the name suggests, migration of disc material, usually a sequestrated disc fragment, into the dorsal (posterior) epidural space, posterior to the theca. This is a rare occurrence, often not suspected preoperatively and is almost invariably encountere...

Splenius cervicis muscle

The splenius cervicis is part of the superficial layer of the intrinsic back muscles. It is one of the two muscles in this group, the other being the splenius capitis. Summary origin: spinous processes of T3-T6 insertion: transverse processes of C1-C3 innervation: dorsal rami of the lower ce...

Discal cyst

Discal cysts (also known as a disk cyst or disc cyst) are uncommon lesions of the spine, representing an extrathecal cyst which communicates with the adjacent intervertebral disc through an annular fissure. Epidemiology The vast majority of discal cysts, as rare as they are, have been reporte...

Splenius capitis muscle

The splenius capitis is a strap-like muscles that, along with the splenius cervicis, comprise the superficial layer of intrinsic back muscles. Gross anatomy Attachments origin: ligamentum nuchae, and the tips of the spinous processes and associated supraspinous ligaments of C7 and the upper t...

Suboccipital muscle group

The suboccipital muscle group contains four paired muscles, three of which pairs belong to the suboccipital triangle. These muscles all lie below the occipital bone and are responsible for postural support of the head, as well as extension, lateral flexion and rotation. As these muscles are smal...

Facet joint capsule

Facet joint capsules are the fibrous capsule that surround the vertebral facet or zygapophyseal joints. They are particularly thin and loose, attached to the margins of articular facets on adjoining articular processes. The capsules merge medially with the ligamentum flavum. In the cervical re...

Fluoroscopy guided lumbar puncture

Fluoroscopy-guided lumbar puncture (LP) is a minimally invasive, image-guided diagnostic and therapeutic procedure that involves the removal of a small volume of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from, or an injection of medication or other substance (e.g. radiotracer, chemotherapy agents) into the lumb...

Intervertebral joint

There are three intervertebral joints between each adjacent vertebra from the axis to the sacrum – one between the vertebral bodies and a pair between the facets of adjoining vertebral arches (zygapophysial joints, also called facet joints). Gross anatomy Movement flexion: the anterior interv...

HTLV-1-associated myelopathy

HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (also known as tropical spastic paraparesis) is primarily seen in Japan, Melanesia and the Caribbean and presents with chronic spastic paraparesis. Terminology This condition has been independently described in Japan (HTLV-1 associated myelopathy) and in the Carib...

Uncovertebral joint

Uncovertebral joints, also called Luschka’s joints, are seen bilaterally between adjacent cervical vertebrae, identified by the cat ear shaped uncinate processes of the C3-7 vertebrae (C1 and C2 have no uncinate processes). Gross anatomy Articulations The articulation forms between the uncina...

Ligamentum nuchae

The ligamentum nuchae is a large median ligament composed of tendons and fascia located between the posterior muscles of the neck. It covers the spines of C1 to C6 vertebrae. It is a superior and posterior extension of the supraspinous ligament. It rises from the spinous process of C7 to the ini...

Intertransverse ligaments

The intertransverse ligaments consist of fibrous tissue joining transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae. In the cervical region, intertransverse ligaments are scattered fibers that are largely replaced by intertransverse muscles. In the thoracic region, these are fibrous cords blending with t...

Coccyx

The coccyx (plural: coccyges) is the series of rudimentary vertebrae forming the caudal termination of the vertebral column and is positioned inferior to the apex of the sacrum. The coccyx is one leg of the tripod formed in conjunction with the ischial tuberosities for support in a seated positi...

Anterior horn syndrome

Anterior horn syndrome is a fairly generic term used to refer to flaccid paralysis and areflexia due to involvement of the anterior grey matter horns of the spinal cord. Sensation is typically preserved. Causes of anterior horn syndrome include: anterior spinal artery ischemia poliomyeliti...

Poliomyelitis-like syndrome

Poliomyelitis-like syndrome, or polio-like paralysis, is an uncommon form of myelitis that presents similar to polio, due to non-poliovirus pathologies which selectively involve the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord and result in an anterior horn syndrome. Although it usually has an infecti...

Owl-eyes sign (spinal cord)

The owl-eyes sign, also known as snake-eyes sign or fried-eggs sign, represents bilaterally symmetric circular to ovoid foci of high T2-weighted signals in the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord and is seen on axial MR imaging. The sagittal corollary is a "pencil-like" vertical linear high T...

Genant classification of vertebral fractures

The Genant classification of vertebral fractures is based on the vertebral shape, with respect to vertebral height loss involving the anterior, posterior, and/or middle vertebral body. grade 0: normal grade 1: mild fracture, <25% loss of height grade 2: moderate fracture, 25% to ...

Kyphosis

Kyphosis (plural: kyphoses), much less commonly kyphus, is a term used to describe the sagittal curvature of the thoracic spine. Pathology Etiology An increased kyphotic angle is seen in the following conditions: Scheuermann disease spondyloarthropathies osteoporosis vertebral body fractu...

Camptocormia

Camptocormia, also known as bent spine syndrome or cyphose hystérique, is a rare syndrome characterized by involuntary flexion of the thoracolumbar spine with weight-bearing which reduces when lying down, and is due to isolated atrophy of the paraspinal muscles. Epidemiology In a small case se...

Intervertebral osteochondrosis

Intervertebral osteochondrosis is the pathologic degenerative process involving the intervertebral disc and the respective vertebral body endplates (not necessarily symptomatic). It is believed to be different and a further stage of spondylosis deformans, which is a consequence of normal aging. ...

Intradural disc herniation

Intradural disc herniations occur when disc material related to an intervertebral disc hernia penetrates the spinal dura and lies in an intradural extramedullary location. Epidemiology Intradural disc herniations correspond to a rare presentation of a common pathology, comprising ~0.28% of all...

Disc sequestration

Sequestrated disc, also referred to as a free disc fragment, corresponds to extruded disc material that has no continuity with the parent disc and is displaced away from the site of extrusion. By definition, it corresponds to a subtype of disc extrusion. The term "migrated" disc refers only to ...

Atypical cervical vertebrae

Of the cervical vertebrae, the atlas (C1), axis (C2) and vertebra prominens (C7) are considered atypical cervical vertebrae. The atlas (C1) lacks a body or spinous process. It has anterior and posterior arches with lateral masses. Its superior articular surfaces articulate with the occiput at t...

Atypical lumbar vertebrae

Of the five lumbar vertebrae, L5 is considered atypical due to its shape. The remaining lumbar vertebrae are largely typical. For a basic anatomic description of the structure a generic vertebra, see vertebrae.

Batson venous plexus

Batson venous plexus, also known as Batson veins, are a network of paravertebral veins with no valves that connect thoracic vessels and deep pelvic veins draining the bladder, prostate, and rectum to the internal vertebral venous plexus 1. These veins are important because they are believed to p...

Honda sign (sacrum)

The Honda sign (H sign / H pattern) is a term used to describe the appearance of bilateral sacral insufficiency fractures on a radioisotope bone scan. Radiographic features Sacral insufficiency fractures are usually vertically through the sacral alae, paralleling the sacroiliac joint, often wi...

Thoracic spine

The thoracic spine (often shortened to T-spine) forms the middle part of the vertebral column. It extends from below C7 of the cervical spine to above L1 of the lumbar spine. There are 12 thoracic vertebra, termed T1-T12. The thoracic spine is unique due to its articulation with ribs via costal...

Atypical thoracic vertebrae

T1 and T9 - T12 are considered atypical thoracic vertebrae. T1 bears some resemblance to low cervical vertebrae T9 has no inferior demifacet T10 often, but not always, shares features with T11 and T12. For a basic anatomic description of the structure a generic vertebra, see vertebrae.

T12 vertebra

T12 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a single costal facet with no facets on transverse processes.

T11 vertebra

T11 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a single costal facet that articulates with the atypical eleventh rib. There are no facets on the transverse processes.

T1 vertebra

T1 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a complete facet for the 1st rib and a demifacet for the 2nd rib. It contains lips on the upper surface of the body. T1 also has a spinous process more horizontal than other thoracic vertebrae.

Typical thoracic vertebrae

Given the twelve thoracic vertebrae are largely similar, most are considered typical thoracic vertebrae with the exceptions T1 and T9 to T12. For a basic anatomic description of the structure of typical vertebrae, see vertebrae. Terminology In medical English, some doctors and texts refer to t...

Nude nerve root

A nude nerve root is perhaps not as exciting as the name would suggest. It refers to an uncommon anatomical variant where nerve roots simply exit the theca without investing dural sleeves 1. These have been associated, at least in case reports, with spontaneous craniospinal hypotension 1.

Split fat sign

The split fat sign is a feature that can be seen typically on MRI images with peripheral nerve sheath tumors. It is seen as a fine rind of fat around the lesion. It is best appreciated on T1 weighted images 1. On coronal or sagittal images (i.e. images along the direction of the nerve) a tapered...

Crowned dens syndrome

Crowned dens syndrome is an inflammatory condition resulting from crystal deposition in the cruciform and alar ligaments surrounding the dens, appearing as a radiopaque "crown" surrounding the top of the dens. It typically presents with pain and increased inflammatory markers. Terminology The...

Ginkgo leaf sign (spinal meningioma)

The ginkgo leaf sign of spinal meningiomas has been described as a useful MRI sign in distinguishing a spinal meningioma from a neurogenic tumor (e.g. spinal schwannoma). It is seen on axial post contrast T1 imaging, with the leaf representing the distorted spinal cord, pushed to one side of t...

Spinal vascular malformations

Spinal vascular malformations are rare but knowledge of them is important as if undiagnosed and untreated they can lead to serious complications. The main types are arteriovenous fistulae, arteriovenous malformations, cavernous malformations, and capillary telangiectasia. Pathology Classificat...

Hereditary spastic paraplegia

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) refers to a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative conditions characterized by progressive degeneration of the corticospinal tracts and posterior column of the spinal cord. Clinical presentation In its pure phenotype, patients tend to have progressive and ...

Pseudosubluxation of the cervical spine

Pseudosubluxation of the cervical spine is the physiological anterior displacement of C2 on C3 in children. It is common in children <7 years, and less often present in older children. Less often it is seen at C3 on C4. It is more pronounced in flexion and is of clinical significance as it can b...

Degenerative disc disease

Degenerative disc disease is a very common entity in the spine, encountered with increasing frequency throughout life and becoming almost universal in late adulthood to a varying degree. It contributes to billions of dollars in health care costs and lost productivity every year due to associated...

Cervical interlaminar epidural steroid injection

Cervical interlaminar epidural steroid injections (ILESIs) are used to inject steroids in the epidural space and around the exiting nerve roots and are one of the two main spinal epidural injections; the other cervical transforaminal epidural injections. Indications Typically performed in pat...

Lumbar interlaminar epidural injection

Lumbar interlaminar epidural injections are one of some possible spinal epidural injections. For an alternative approach for the same region, please refer to the article on lumbar transforaminal epidural injections. Indications Typically, epidural injections are performed in patients with rad...

Sacral hiatus

The sacral hiatus corresponds to the posterior caudal opening at the end of the sacral canal, which usually occurs at the fifth sacral vertebra (S5), at the posterior surface of the sacrum. Gross anatomy Location Commonly, the sacral hiatus corresponds to the non-formation of S5 spinous proce...

Ancient schwannoma

Ancient schwannomas are long-standing, benign (WHO grade 1) slow growing schwannomas with advanced degeneration. The term “ancient” has been traditionally used to describe schwannomas showing degenerative changes and diffuse hypocellular ischemic areas 1-3,9. Pathology These tumors demonstrate...

Peripheral nerve sheath tumor

Peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) are a group of primary neurogenic tumors that arise from nerve sheaths outside of the central nervous system. The vast majority are benign, however, malignant transformation is seen particularly in large tumors and those associated with neurofibromatosis ty...

Chalk stick fracture

Chalk stick, also known as carrot stick fractures, are fractures of the fused spine, classically seen in ankylosing spondylitis. Terminology Some authors define the chalk stick fracture as a fracture through a Pagetoid long bone (see Paget disease) 3. Pathology They usually occur through the...

Denver criteria for blunt cerebrovascular injury

The Denver criteria are a set of screening criteria used to determine when CT angiography of the neck is indicated to detect blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) in trauma patients. Screening criteria The Denver criteria were initially developed in 1996 1, modified in 2005 to limit the types o...

Modified Memphis criteria for blunt cerebrovascular injury

The modified Memphis criteria are a set of screening criteria for blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) in trauma. The presence of one or more of these criteria makes necessary a complementary CTA or DSA study to exclude a BCVI. The screening protocol criteria for BCVI are: base of skull fractur...

Blunt cerebrovascular injury

Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI), sometimes called blunt cervicovascular injury or blunt carotid and vertebral artery injury, refers to a spectrum of injuries to the cervical carotid and vertebral arteries due to blunt trauma. Epidemiology Blunt cerebrovascular injury is often part of multi...

Anderson and D'Alonzo classification of odontoid process fracture

The Anderson and D'Alonzo classification is the most commonly used classification of fractures of the odontoid process of C2. Another classification system is the Roy-Camille classification, which aids more in the management of odontoid fractures. Classification type I rare fractur...

Roy-Camille classification of odontoid process fracture

The Roy-Camille classification of fractures of the odontoid process of C2 depends on the direction of the fracture line 1. The level of fracture line as described by the Anderson and D’Alonzo classification is not predictive of the degree of instability or the risk of non-union. This classifica...

Torticollis

Torticollis, also known as wry neck, is a clinical finding of head tilt with or without rotational spinal malalignment. It is not a diagnosis in itself and there are a wide range of underlying conditions. It is most common in the pediatric age group. Pathology Torticollis can be acute (<1 wee...

Neurolymphomatosis

Neurolymphomatosis is a rare cause of neuropathy due to infiltration of the peripheral nervous system by a hematologic malignancy, in the great majority a B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It should be differentiated from non-tumor neuropathies associated with lymphoma, such as irradiation, chemothe...

Spina bifida occulta

Spina bifida occulta is the mildest form of spina bifida/spinal dysraphism and is a type of neural tube defect. Terminology While typically referring to asymptomatic posterior fusion defects, some authors 5 use it as a broad term that encompasses closed spinal defects such as: diastematomyel...

Retropulsed fragment

A retropulsed fragment is any vertebral fracture fragment that is displaced into the spinal canal, thereby potentially causing spinal cord injury. They usually arise from the vertebral body with or without a portion of the pedicle, and are displaced posteriorly, hence the prefix 'retro'.

Atlantodental interval

The atlantodental interval is used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries and injuries of the atlas and axis. Measurement The anterior atlantodental interval is the horizontal distance between the posterior cortex of the anterior arch of the atlas (C1) and the anterior cor...

Basion-axial interval

The basion-axial interval (BAI) is the horizontal distance between the basion and the posterior cortex of the axis, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries. It is the distance (in mm) between the basion and the superior extension of the posterior cortical margin of the ...

Basion-dens interval

The basion-dens interval (BDI) is the distance between the basion and the tip of the dens, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries. It is the distance from the most inferior portion of the basion to the closest point of the superior aspect of the dens in the median (mid...

Spinal cord transection

Spinal cord transection, as the name implies, refers to a tear within the spinal cord as a result of a significant traumatic injury. It is an important radiological finding that can influence the decision on potential surgery in the setting of spinal trauma. Clinical presentation The presentat...

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) refers to the hematogenous spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pathology Extrapulmonary tuberculosis can occur as a primary form of the disease, i.e. direct infection of an extrapulmonary organ without the presence of primary pulmonary tuberculosis or it can ...

Pneumatic nerve root compression

Pneumatic nerve root compression is a term given to nerve root compression due to a presence of a juxtadiscal herniated gas locule. It is not a common occurrence 2. The gas locules in these instances typically arise from herniation of intradiscal gas which occurs as part of disc degenerative cha...

Spinal epidural hematoma

Spinal epidural hematomas are rare and can result in severe morbidity if treatment is delayed and they are thus typically considered a surgical emergency. Clinical presentation The patient's symptoms and signs will depend on the location of the hematoma, and the degree of spinal cord/cauda eq...

Traumatic spinal cord injury

Traumatic spinal cord injury can manifest as a wide variety of clinical syndromes resulting from damage to the spinal cord or its surrounding structures. It can result from minor injury if the spine is weakened from disease such as ankylosing spondylitis or if there is pre-existing spinal stenos...

Failed back syndrome

Failed back syndrome refers to persistent leg and/or lumbar back pain after a surgical procedure. The pathophysiology of this syndrome is complex, as often the operation was technically successful. Terminology Other names for failed back syndrome include failed back surgery syndrome, post-lam...

Loss of intervertebral disc space (differential)

Loss of intervertebral disc space can be due to a variety of causes: degenerative disc disease of the spine: most common cause trauma discitis neuropathic spondyloarthropathy dialysis related spondyloarthropathy ankylosing spondylitis ochronosis crystal deposition diseases sarcoidosis ...

Meningocele

Meningoceles (also spelled meningocoele) are protrusions of the meninges through a defect or weak point in the skull or spine, usually involving the soft tissues beneath the surface of the skin. They are typically categorized into congenital, iatrogenic (e.g. following a craniotomy, sinus surger...

Lumbar plexus

The lumbar plexus is a complex neural network formed by the lower thoracic and lumbar ventral nerve roots (T12 to L5) which supplies motor and sensory innervation to the lower limb and pelvic girdle. Summary origin: ventral rami of T12 to L5 course: formed within the substance of the psoas ma...

Powers ratio

The Powers ratio is a measurement of the relationship of the foramen magnum to the atlas, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries. The ratio, AB/CD, is measured as the ratio of the distance in the median (midsagittal) plane between the: basion (A) and the posterior spi...

Normal spine imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the spine and surrounding structures, divided by region and modality. Cervical spine plain radiograph example 1: AP, lat, obliques only example 2: PEG view example 3: flexion and extension views only example 4: pediatric (12 years old) exam...

Congenital absence of a spine pedicle

Congenital absence of a spine pedicle is a rare congenital condition, but awareness of its characteristic imaging appearance is important to avoid misdiagnosis. Failure to recognize this entity can lead to misdiagnosis of unilateral facet subluxation/dislocation, leading to unnecessary treatmen...

Vertebral venous plexus

The vertebral venous plexus is a highly anastomotic network of valveless veins running along the entire length of the vertebral column from the foramen magnum to the sacral hiatus. Gross anatomy The vertebral venous plexus is comprised of three interconnected divisions: internal vertebral ven...

Sacral insufficiency fracture

Sacral insufficiency fractures are a subtype of stress fractures, which are the result of normal stresses on abnormal bone, most frequently seen in the setting of osteoporosis. They fall under the broader group of pelvic insufficiency fractures. Epidemiology Risk factors Risk factors are thos...

Olisthesis

Olisthesis, also known as the etymologically less correct listhesis, means slipping or sliding. Pathology Types include: anterolisthesis spondylolisthesis spondylolisthesis grading retrolisthesis

Ossification of the ligamentum flavum

Ossification of the ligamentum flavum is a phenomenon where there is a formation of ossific-calcific components in the ligamentum flavum. It is a recognized cause of myelopathy, especially in the thoracic and to a lesser degree the cervical region. Epidemiology The condition as a whole is unco...

Leptomeningeal drop-metastases

Leptomeningeal drop-metastases correspond to a CNS primary neoplasm spread inferiorly along the cerebrospinal spaces. It is usually presented as diffuse enhancing nodules along the spine and cauda equina. Please refer on leptomeningeal metastases to a broad discussion on this entity and also m...

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