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McRae line

McRae line is a radiographic line drawn on a lateral skull radiograph or on a midsagittal section of CT or MRI that connects the anterior and posterior margins of the foramen magnum (basion to opisthion). Significance indicates the presence of basilar invagination (atlantoaxial impaction): the...

Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome

Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome is uncommon, but usually presents with profound neurological signs and symptoms, and the prognosis is poor. Epidemiology Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome represents only 5-8% of acute myelopathies 4,5 and <1% of all strokes 7. The demographic of affected...

Spinal cord

The spinal cord is the part of the central nervous system that is found within the spinal canal of the vertebral column. The cord extends from the corticomedullary junction at the foramen magnum of the skull down to the tip of the conus medullaris within the lumbar cistern. It is lined by spinal...

Fleck sign (foot)

The fleck sign in the foot is a small bony fragment seen in the Lisfranc space (between the base of the 1st and 2nd metatarsal) associated with avulsion of the Lisfranc ligament (at the base of the 2nd metatarsal or the medial cuneiform). It is a very subtle, but important finding since it predi...

Osteoarthritis of the vertebral column

Osteoarthritis of the vertebral column, also known as spinal osteoarthritis, is so common that it is widely known as spinal "degenerative change". Complications such as spinal stenosis are important to recognize. Radiographic features Spinal osteoarthritis presents radiologically like other j...

Bertolotti syndrome

Bertolotti syndrome refers to the association between lumbosacral transitional vertebrae and low back pain. Although it may be a consideration in younger patients, the entity is considered controversial and has been both supported and disputed. Some studies suggest lumbosacral transitional vert...

Brachial plexus

The brachial plexus is a complex neural network formed by lower cervical and upper thoracic ventral nerve roots which supplies motor and sensory innervation to the upper limb and pectoral girdle. It is located in the neck extending into the axilla posterior to the clavicle. Summary origin: ven...

Ossification centers of the vertebral column

Ossification of the vertebral column is complex but an overview of primary and secondary ossification centers is given below: Primary ossification centers The C3-L5 vertebrae typically have three primary ossification centers that start appearing at 9 weeks in utero and finish primary ossificat...

Fluid sign (vertebral collapse)

The fluid sign is one of the radiological features of osteoporotic fractures, and can be helpful in distinguishing them from metastatic vertebral fractures, as it is seen more often in osteoporotic fractures and is rarely seen in metastatic fractures 1. It is not as helpful as identifying a para...

Sacroiliac joint

The sacroiliac joint (SIJ) is a synovial joint between ilium and the sacrum. It has little movement and its main function is to transfer weight between the axial and lower appendicular skeletons. The sacroiliac joint is a symmetrical joint (i.e. is paired) with an oblique coronal orientation and...

Castellvi classification of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae

The Castellvi classification is used for lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV): type I: enlarged and dysplastic transverse process (at least 19 mm) Ia: unilateral Ib: bilateral type II: pseudoarticulation of the transverse process and sacrum with incomplete lumbarization/sacralization; en...

Intervertebral disc vacuum phenomenon

Vacuum phenomena involving the intervertebral discs is usually a result of an accumulation of gas, principally nitrogen, within the crevices of the intervertebral discs or adjacent vertebrae. Epidemiology It is a relatively common occurrence which can be observed in 1-3% of spinal radiographs ...

Vertebral lesion (differential)

Differential diagnosis of vertebral lesions is very wide. Differential diagnosis Vertebral body origin intraosseous hemangioma metastases Paget disease multiple myeloma osteonecrosis vertebral body osteomyelitis lymphoma plasmacytoma giant cell tumor Langerhans...

Cobb angle

The Cobb angle is the most widely used measurement to quantify the magnitude of spinal deformities, especially in the case of scoliosis, on plain radiographs. Scoliosis is defined as a lateral spinal curvature with a Cobb angle of >10° 4. A Cobb angle can also aid kyphosis or lordosis assessment...

Lateral thoracic meningocele

Lateral thoracic meningoceles are a type of spinal meningocele. Pathology As with any meningocele, it results from herniation of the meninges through a foramen or a defect in the vertebral column. Associations They are typically associated with neurofibromatosis type I but can rarely occur ...

Posterior lumbar subcutaneous edema

Posterior lumbar subcutaneous edema (PLSO) / posterior lumbar subcutaneous edema (PLSE) is a very frequent finding on MRI of the spine. Clinical correlation is almost always required to identify the significance of this. Epidemiology It is more common in elderly and female patients. Patholog...

Atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries

Atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries are severe and include both atlanto-occipital dislocations and atlanto-occipital subluxations. Pathology The tectorial membrane and alar ligaments provide most of the stability to the atlanto-occipital joint, and injury to these ligaments results in inst...

Clasp-knife deformity

Clasp-knife deformity is relatively common congenital anomaly found at the lumbosacral junction. Terminology When a clasp-knife deformity is accompanied by pain on extension secondary to protrusion of the enlarged spinous process (knife blade) into the sacral spinal canal, it is called clasp-k...

Chamberlain line

Chamberlain line is a line joining the back of hard palate with the opisthion on a lateral view of the craniocervical junction. Significance It helps to recognize basilar invagination which is said to be present if the tip of the dens is >3 mm above this line. McGregor developed a modificatio...

Posterior vertebral element lesions (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for posterior vertebral element lesions is: GO TAPE Mnemonic G: giant cell tumor O: osteoid osteoma / osteoblastoma T: tuberculosis A: aneurysmal bone cyst P: Paget disease E: eosinophilic granuloma

Vertebra plana (mnemonic)

Mnemonics to remember the causes of vertebra plana include: I MELT FETISH Mnemonics I MELT I: infection M: metastasis/myeloma E: eosinophilic granuloma L: lymphoma/leukemia T: trauma/tuberculosis FETISH F: fracture (trauma) E: eosinophilic granuloma T: tumor (e.g. metastases, myelom...

Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas

The Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF) groups these lesions into three types based upon the site of venous drainage and the presence or absence of cortical venous drainage. It was first proposed in 1995 1. At the time of writing (July 2016), it is probably less popular ...

Curtain sign (vertebral body mass)

The curtain sign, also known as the draped curtain sign, in neuroimaging refers to the appearance of a vertebral body mass that extends posteriorly towards the anterior epidural space. The posterior longitudinal ligament is strongly attached to the posterior vertebral body cortex in the midline...

Naked facet sign (vertebral column)

The naked facet sign (also known as the hamburger sign or reverse hamburger bun sign) refers to the CT appearance of an uncovered vertebral articular facet when the facet joint is dislocated, most often in cases of locked facet. This CT sign is characteristic of a flexion-distraction injury an...

Picture frame vertebral body

Picture frame vertebral body is a radiologic appearance in which the cortex of the vertebral body is thickened. This sign can be seen in patients with Paget disease. It is a result of disorganized new cortical bone formation after excessive osteoclastic activity causes the resorption of normal...

Sandwich vertebral body

Sandwich vertebral body is a radiologic appearance in which the endplates are densely sclerotic, giving the appearance of a sandwich. This term and pattern are distinctive for benign adult autosomal dominant osteopetrosis. Differential diagnosis rugger jersey spine: sandwich vertebrae appears ...

Corduroy sign (vertebral hemangioma)

The corduroy sign refers to vertically-oriented, thickened trabeculae seen in intraosseous hemangiomas of the spine. It is the sagittal and coronal equivalent of the polka-dot sign seen on axial imaging. It is caused by the replacement of the normal cancellous bone by thickened vertical trabec...

Fluorosis

Skeletal fluorosis is a chronic metabolic bone disease caused by the ingestion of large amounts of fluoride. Clinical presentation While often asymptomatic, non-specific signs and symptoms may be present, including 8: bone and joint pains kyphosis radiculomyelopathy dental fluorosis, with ...

Meningeal melanocytoma

Meningeal melanocytomas are rare benign primary melanocytic tumors of the CNS that are derived from leptomeningeal melanocytes. They can occur anywhere along the neuraxis but are most commonly found in the spinal canal near the foramen magnum, as well as the posterior cranial fossa, Meckel cave,...

Hemosiderin cap sign

The hemosiderin cap sign refers to an MR imaging feature in some spinal tumors where a cap of T2 hypointense hemosiderin is above and/or below the tumor due to previous hemorrhage. It is most often associated with spinal cord ependymomas (20-33% of cases) 1. It may also be seen in hemangioblas...

Retrolisthesis

The term retrolisthesis (less commonly known as retrospondylolisthesis or posterolisthesis, or reverse vertebral slip) refers to posterior displacement of a vertebral body relative to the caudal vertebral body. Pathology Causes include: trauma facet joint osteoarthritis congenital anomalies...

Anterolisthesis

The term anterolisthesis refers to anterior displacement (forward slip) of a vertebral body relative to the one below. Its severity can be graded by the Meyerding classification and its etiology classified according to the Wiltse classification.

Occult intrasacral meningocele

Occult intrasacral meningocele, or more simply sacral meningocele, is a rare congenital lesion characterized by an extradural arachnoid cyst within the sacral canal, classified as a Nabor type Ib meningeal cyst. Terminology Other terms for this entity in the literature include intrasacral meni...

Dumbbell appearance of spinal tumors

The dumbbell appearance of spinal tumors refers to a tumor which has both a component within the canal and a component in the paravertebral space contiguous with each other via a thinner tumor component traversing the neural exit foramen. The appearance can be seen in: spinal nerve sheath tumo...

Holocord presentation

Holocord presentation refers to a process that involves the entire spinal cord from the cervicomedullary junction to the tip of the conus. It does not relate to a specific condition, nor does it distinguish between involvement by cystic expansion, solid tumor, or by a combination of both. It mer...

Neoplasms of the cauda equina (differential)

The differential diagnosis for masses of the cauda equina region is often considered separately to the remainder of the spinal cord. It is often difficult to determine whether masses in this region are intramedullary or intradural-extramedullary. Most common tumors myxopapillary ependymoma by...

Anterior sacral meningocele

Anterior sacral meningocele is a congenital defect seen in the anterior aspect of the spine. It is defined as a meningeal cyst that occurs in the presacral space secondary to agenesis of a portion of the anterior sacrum. Pathology Associations In approximately 50% of cases, associated malform...

Spinal epidermoid cyst

Spinal epidermoid cysts are cystic tumors lined by squamous epithelium. Unlike dermoid cysts, they do not contain skin appendages (hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands). They are usually extramedullary but rarely can be intramedullary. They may be congenital or acquired. This article ...

Spinal dermoid cyst

Spinal dermoid cysts are uni or multilocular cystic tumors lined by squamous epithelium containing skin appendages (hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands) 6. They are congenital in origin. Forty percent are intramedullary, and 60% are extramedullary 6. This article specifically relate...

Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula

Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas (SDAVF) are the most common type of spinal vascular malformation, accounting for ~70% of all such lesions. This article specifically relates to spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas. For a discussion of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas refer to the mai...

Intradural spinal mass lesions (an approach)

Intradural spinal mass lesions are relatively uncommon, compared to intracranial or extradural masses, and can be challenging to diagnose. Additionally, the need for a pre-operative/non-operative diagnosis is in many ways greater as biopsy of lesions within the cord has the potential of devastat...

Accessory ossicle of the anterior arch of the atlas

The accessory ossicle of the anterior arch of the atlas is a normal variant and is best appreciated on a lateral cervical/sagittal study. It is observed as a circular and corticated osseous density that articulates with the inferior aspect of the anterior arch of the atlas. It is not associate...

Spinal neurofibroma

Spinal neurofibromas are benign peripheral nerve sheath tumors, usually of the localized subtype. This article specifically relates to spinal neurofibromas. For a general discussion of neurofibromas, including their epidemiology and pathology, refer to neurofibroma. For a discussion of the gene...

Spinal cord cavernous malformation

Spinal cord cavernous malformations, also known as spinal cavernomas, are vascular malformations that occur within the spinal cord. This article specifically relates to spinal cord cavernomas. For a discussion of cerebral cavernomas and a general discussion of the pathology refer to the main ar...

Spinal pilocytic astrocytoma

Although rare, pilocytic astrocytomas are the most common spinal cord tumors in the pediatric population. This article specifically relates to spinal pilocytic astrocytomas. For a discussion on intracranial pilocytic astrocytomas refer to pilocytic astrocytoma. For a general discussion on spina...

Transverse myelitis

Transverse myelitis, also known as acute transverse myelitis, is an inflammatory condition affecting both halves of the spinal cord and associated with rapidly progressive motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunction. MRI is the most useful imaging modality, which generally shows a long segment (3...

Intradural spinal lipoma

Intradural lipomas are a subset of spinal lipomas. They are typically intradural, subpial, juxtamedullary lesions 1 although they have occasionally been reported as entirely intramedullary lesions 2. Mature fatty tissue within the spinal dura can be seen in a number of entities: lipomyelo...

Lymphoma of the spinal cord

Lymphoma of the spinal cord is an uncommon manifestation of lymphoma. Although lymphoma more commonly involves the vertebral body (vertebral body tumors) or epidural compartment, intramedullary lymphoma may rarely occur. Apparent intramedullary spinal cord lymphoma may often, in fact, represe...

Intramedullary spinal metastasis

Intramedullary spinal metastases are rare, occurring in ~1% of autopsied cancer patients, and are less common than leptomeningeal metastases. Intramedullary lesions may result from: growth along the Virchow-Robin spaces hematogenous dissemination direct extension from the leptomeninges Epid...

Spinal primitive neuroectodermal tumor

Spinal primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) are rare. Most cases are secondary to metastatic spread through the subarachnoid space from a primary intracranial tumor although rare cases of primary spinal PNETs have been reported. This article specifically relates to spinal PNETs. For a discu...

Spinal ganglioglioma

Spinal gangliogliomas are rare, comprising 1.1% of all spinal cord neoplasms 2. They are more frequent in children, representing 15% of intramedullary neoplasms in the pediatric age group 4. This article specifically relates to spinal gangliogliomas. For a discussion on intracranial ganglioglio...

Spinal hemangioblastoma

Spinal hemangioblastomas are the third most common intramedullary spinal neoplasm, representing 2-6% of all intramedullary tumors 1,4,7. This article specifically relates to spinal hemangioblastomas. For a discussion on intracranial hemangioblastomas and a general discussion of the pathology re...

Spinal astrocytoma

Spinal astrocytomas are the second most common spinal cord tumor, representing 40% of intramedullary tumors 3. They account for 60% of pediatric intramedullary tumors, making them the most common spinal cord tumor in children 6. This article specifically relates to spinal astrocytomas. For a di...

Myxopapillary ependymoma

Myxopapillary ependymomas are a variant type of ependymoma that occurs predominantly in the filum terminale and/or conus medullaris. They represent 13% of all spinal ependymomas and are the most common tumors of the cauda equina region. Epidemiology They tend to have an earlier clinical presen...

Spinal ependymoma

Spinal ependymomas are the most common spinal cord tumor overall, seen both in adult and pediatric populations. This article specifically relates to spinal cord ependymomas. For a discussion of posterior fossa ependymomas and for a general discussion of the pathology refer to the main article:...

Intramedullary spinal tumors

Intramedullary spinal tumors are rare, representing 4-10% of all CNS tumors and <10% of all pediatric CNS neoplasms 5. They account for 20% of all intraspinal tumors in adults and 35% of all intraspinal tumors in children 8. A long duration of symptoms prior to diagnosis is typical. Pathology ...

Spinal neuroendocrine tumor

Spinal or cauda equina neuroendocrine tumors are rare sporadic WHO grade 1 tumors, almost invariably found below the conus arising either from the filum terminal or less commonly from the cauda equina 5. Terminology These tumors were previously known as spinal paragangliomas however they are ...

Intradural extramedullary metastases

Intradural extramedullary metastases are rare and only account for approximately 5% of spinal metastases. Please review leptomeningeal metastases (brain) for a general discussion focussed on the brain's subarachnoid space involvement. Epidemiology The age at presentation depends on tumor type...

Spinal nerve sheath tumors

Spinal nerve sheath tumors are the most common intradural extramedullary masses. This article is an overview of spinal nerve sheath tumors. For a discussion on the epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathology and treatment/prognosis of spinal schwannomas and neurofibromas, please refer to spi...

Intradural extramedullary spinal tumors

Intradural extramedullary neoplasms are located outside the spinal cord but within the dural sheath. Epidemiology The majority (70-80%) of spinal canal tumors are intradural extramedullary 1. Clinical presentation Patients present with signs and symptoms of spinal cord or nerve root compres...

Spinal compression fracture

Spinal compression fractures occur as a result of injury, commonly fall onto the buttock or pressure from normal activities, to the weakened vertebrae due to osteoporosis. Epidemiology They have a reported incidence of 1.2 per 1000 person-years after 85 years of age in the United States. Howev...

Spinal meningioma

Meningiomas arising from the coverings of the spinal cord are one of the two most common intradural extramedullary spinal tumors, representing 25-30% of all such tumors 2. This article specifically relates to spinal meningiomas. For a discussion on intracranial meningiomas and a general discus...

Tabes dorsalis

Tabes dorsalis is a form of tertiary late neurosyphilis in which there is demyelination of the posterior columns of the spinal cord. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on syphilis. Clinical presentation Patients presen...

Spinal neurenteric cyst

Spinal neurenteric cysts are a rare type of foregut duplication cyst, accounting for ~1% of all spinal cord tumors. They are usually classified as spinal or intracranial and are associated with vertebral or CNS abnormalities respectively. Pathology Neurenteric cysts result from incomplete res...

Anterior angulation of the coccyx

Anterior angulation of the coccyx may be a normal variant but poses a diagnostic challenge for those considering coccygeal trauma. Classification Four types of coccyx have been described: type I: the coccyx is curved slightly forward, with its apex pointing caudally (~70%) type II: the coccy...

Central cord syndrome

Central cord syndrome is the most common type of incomplete spinal cord syndrome, usually, the result of trauma, accounting for ~10% of all spinal cord injuries. As the name implies, this syndrome is the result of damage to the central portion spinal cord and in the setting of trauma most common...

Pathology checklists

Pathology checklists are series of sometimes missed pathological entities possible to see on radiological studies. They are helpful when reporting a radiograph, ultrasound, or cross-sectional examination as a way to ensure that you fully review a film and don't fall foul of satisfaction of searc...

Déjerine-Sottas disease

Déjerine-Sottas disease, also known as hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy type III or hypertrophic interstitial polyneuritis, is a rare hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (HMSN). This syndrome should not be confused with Déjerine syndrome or Déjerine-Roussy syndrome. Clinical present...

Arcuate foramen

The arcuate foramen (foramen arcuate atlantis, ponticulus posticus or posterior ponticle, or Kimerle anomaly) is a frequently encountered normal variant of the atlas and is easily appreciated on a lateral plain film of the craniocervical junction. Epidemiology Incidence is ~8% (range 1-15%) an...

Iofendylate

Iofendylate (generic names: ethyl 10-(4-iodophenyl)undecanoate or iodophenylundecylic acid) and sold under the tradename Myodil (except the USA where it was marketed as Pantopaque) was an oil-based contrast medium used for myelography. The iodine moiety of the compound causes high attenuation ...

Tight filum terminale syndrome

Tight filum terminale syndrome, or tight filum syndrome, is a subtype of the tethered cord syndrome that is attributed to a thick, short, and/or otherwise inelastic filum terminale rather than other tethering agents. Terminology The term "tight filum terminale syndrome" is synonymous with "tet...

Rachischisis totalis

Rachischisis totalis, also known as complete spina bifida, refers to a severe form of spina bifida where there is a cleft through the entire spine. Pathology There is often a severe or complete defect of the neural tube involving the entire spine from the cervical region through to the sacrum....

Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems

Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems are numerous and represent attempts by various authors to create systems that allow uniform and reproducible classification and description of thoracolumbar fractures which in turn can help with treatment decision making and prognostication. ...

Magerl classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures

The Magerl classification, one of many thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems, was adopted as the original AO classification in 1994 but has since then been superseded: see the current AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries. Usage Although the Magerl classification is based ...

McAfee classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures

McAfee classification of acute traumatic spinal injuries is one of a number of thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems and based on the three-column concept of the spine (of Denis). It requires CT for an accurate assessment. Usage The McAfee classification uses terminology that is...

Three column concept of spinal fractures

The three-column concept of thoracolumbar spinal fractures (of Denis) forms the basis of a number of widely used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems. Usage While the three-column concept was initially developed for classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures, it can also ...

Spinal synovial cyst

Spinal synovial cysts are cystic formations connected to the facet joint and containing synovial fluid lined by a cuboid or pseudostratified columnar epithelium. They may result in lumbar radiculopathy in a significant number of cases. Clinical presentation They may be asymptomatic and found i...

Flexion teardrop fracture

Flexion teardrop fractures represent a fracture pattern occurring in severe axial/flexion injury of the cervical spine. They are important to recognize because they indicate extensive underlying ligamentous injury and spinal instability. Associated spinal cord injury is common, especially anteri...

Vertebral body mass

The differential diagnosis for a vertebral body mass is broad and may range from a completely benign bone island to a malignant primary bone tumor. Classification Broadly, these lesions can be separated into: non-neoplastic lesions primary bone tumors secondary metastatic disease Non-neopl...

Spinal dysraphism

Spinal dysraphisms refer to a broad group of malformations affecting the spine and/or surrounding structures in the dorsum of the embryo. They are a form of neural tube defect. Pathology The neural tube is formed by the lengthwise closure of the neural plate, in the dorsum of the embryo. The ...

Jarcho-Levin syndrome

The Jarcho-Levin syndrome (JLS) or spondylothoracic dysostosis is a rare autosomal recessive heterogeneous disorder that can occur with variable severity. Previously the condition spondylocostal dysostosis was also considered as part of the JLS spectrum but is now considered a distinct pathologi...

Diplomyelia

Diplomyelia is a rare spinal cord malformation in which the cord is duplicated. It should be distinguished from diastematomyelia in which a single cord is split. Having said that it has been proposed that the term be abandoned in favor of split cord malformation, which encompasses both diastemat...

Block vertebra

Block vertebra is a type of vertebral anomaly where there is a failure of separation of two or more adjacent vertebral bodies. It is an anatomic variant. Pathology In a block vertebra, there is partial or complete fusion of adjacent vertebral bodies. Associations hemivertebrae/absent ve...

Fibrocartilaginous embolism

Fibrocartilaginous embolism (also known as nucleus pulposus embolism) is a rare cause of spinal cord ischemia due to embolization of nucleus pulposus material from intervertebral disc in a retrograde direction into a spinal artery or vein. Fibrocartilaginous embolism is a diagnosis of suspicion...

Winking owl sign (spine)

The (absent) pedicle sign, also called the winking owl sign, occurs on plain radiograph of the spine when a pedicle is absent 5. The term, winking owl sign, where the missing pedicle corresponds to the closed eye, the contralateral pedicle to the other round open eye, and the spinous process to...

Polka dot sign (vertebral hemangioma)

The polka dot sign, also known as the salt and pepper sign, is the result of the replacement of the normal cancellous bone by thickened vertical trabeculae surrounded by fat marrow or vascular lacunae in vertebral intraosseous hemangiomas 2. It is the axial equivalent of the corduroy sign or the...

Andersson lesion

An Andersson lesion, also known as rheumatic spondylodiscitis, refer to an inflammatory involvement of the intervertebral discs by spondyloarthritis. Epidemiology Rheumatic spondylodiscitis is a non-infectious condition that has been shown to occur in about 8% of patients with ankylosing spond...

Empty thecal sac sign

The empty thecal sac sign or empty sac sign is when the thecal sac appears empty on MRI of the lumbar spine, best seen on T2-weighted images. If the empty thecal sac sign is present, a diagnosis of adhesive arachnoiditis can be made. Radiographic features MRI There is usually no gadolinium c...

Hirayama disease

Hirayama disease, also termed non-progressive juvenile spinal muscular atrophy of the distal upper limbs, is a type of cervical myelopathy related to flexion movements of the neck. It is considered a benign motor neuron disorder with a stationary stage after a progressive course 1,7. Epidemiolo...

Spinal cord compression

Spinal cord compression (SCC) is a surgical emergency, usually requiring prompt surgical decompression to prevent permanent neurological impairment. If the spinal roots below the conus medullaris are involved, and there are characteristic symptoms and signs, it is termed cauda equina syndrome. ...

Spinal metastases

Spinal metastasis is a vague term which can be variably taken to refer to metastatic disease to any of the following: vertebral metastases (94%) may have epidural extension intradural extramedullary metastases (5%) intramedullary metastases (1%) Each of these are discussed separately. Below...

Iliolumbar ligament

The iliolumbar ligament is a strong band of connective tissue which courses from the transverse process of L5 (in over 96% of cases) to the posterior iliac wing and crest of the ilium. It functions to maintain the alignment of L5 on the sacrum during various movements 1,2. It is an important la...

Lumbosacral transitional vertebra

Lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (LSTV) are a relatively common variant and can be seen in ~25% (range 15-35%) of the general population 1-3. Non-recognition of this variant and/or poor description in the report can lead to operations or procedures performed at the wrong level. Depending on ...

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