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Transitional vertebra

A transitional vertebra is one that has indeterminate characteristics and features of vertebrae from adjacent vertebral segments. They occur at the junction between spinal morphological segments: atlanto-occipital junction atlanto-occipital assimilation: complete or partial fusion of C1 and th...

Hemivertebra

Hemivertebra is a type of vertebral anomaly and results from a lack of formation of one half of a vertebral body. It is a common cause of congenital scoliosis. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~0.3 per 1000 live births 2. Associations Recognized associations are many and include: ...

Cobb syndrome

Cobb syndrome, also called cutaneous vertebral medullary angiomatosis, or spinal arteriovenous metameric syndrome, consists of the presence of a vascular nevus with a spinal vascular malformation of the same body somite (metamere). The importance of this syndrome is the recognition that cutane...

Tethered cord syndrome

Tethered cord syndrome is a neurological disorder caused by tissue attachments that limit the movement of the spinal cord within the spinal canal. Clinical presentation Tethered cord syndrome is a clinical diagnosis based on neurologic deterioration involving the lower spinal cord 7. Patients ...

Spina bifida

Spina bifida is a type of neural tube defect/spinal dysraphism which can occur to varying degrees of severity. It is often considered the most common congenital CNS malformation. Terminology Spina bifida in its strictest sense means defective fusion of the vertebral posterior elements, leading...

Caudal epidural injection

Caudal epidural injections, or sacral hiatus epidural injections, are one of several possible spinal epidural injections. Indications Typically, epidural injections are performed in patients who are currently not surgical candidates. The caudal injection can be performed when patients are on ...

Clay-shoveler fracture

Clay-shoveler fractures are fractures of the spinous process of a lower cervical vertebra. Clinical presentation Often these injuries are unrecognised at the time and only found incidentally years later when the cervical spine is imaged for other reasons. Acutely they tend to be associated wi...

Basilar invagination (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to help recall the causes of basilar invagination is: PF ROACH Mnemonic P: Paget disease of bone F: fibrous dysplasia R: rheumatoid arthritis, rickets O: osteogenesis imperfecta, osteomalacia A: achondroplasia C: Chiari I and Chiari II, cleidocranial dysostosis H: hyperparath...

Coronal vertebral cleft

Coronal vertebral clefts refer to the presence of radiolucent vertical defects on a lateral radiograph. Epidemiology It is most often seen in premature male infants 1,3. As they can occur as part of normal variation (especially in the lower thoracic-upper lumbar spine of premature infants) t...

Diffusely increased bone marrow FDG uptake

A diffuse homogeneous bone marrow FDG uptake usually reflects hyperplastic bone marrow which can be seen in the following conditions: therapy-related granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) post-chemotherapy erythropoietin pathological process myelodysplastic syndromes beta-thalasse...

Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis

Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), also known as Forestier disease, is a common condition characterized by bony proliferation at sites of tendinous and ligamentous insertion of the spine affecting elderly individuals. On imaging, it is typically characterized by the flowing ossific...

Butterfly vertebra

Butterfly vertebra (also sometimes known as a sagittal cleft vertebra or anterior rachischisis) is a type of vertebral anomaly that results from the failure of fusion of the lateral halves of the vertebral body because of persistent notochordal tissue between them. Pathology Butterfly vertebra...

Arachnoiditis

Arachnoiditis is a broad term encompassing inflammation of the meninges and subarachnoid space. Terminology Arachnoiditis affecting the cauda equina may be referred to as spinal/lumbar adhesive arachnoiditis. Clinical presentation Lumbar spine arachnoiditis can result in leg pain, sensory c...

Solitary bone plasmacytoma

Solitary bone plasmacytomas are an uncommon plasma cell tumor which are localized to bone. They may involve any bone, but they have a predisposition for the red marrow-containing axial skeleton: spinal disease is observed in ~50% (range 34-72%) of cases the thoracic vertebrae are most commonly...

Dorsal dermal sinus

Dorsal dermal sinus is an epithelium-lined tract from the skin to the spinal cord, cauda equina, or arachnoid as in a form of spinal dysraphism. Clinical presentation A dorsal dermal sinus manifests as a small dimple or pinpoint ostium, which is often associated with an area of hyperpigmented...

Swischuk line

The Swischuk line is helpful in differentiating pathological anterior displacement of the cervical spine from physiological displacement, termed pseudosubluxation. Measurement the line is drawn from anterior aspect of posterior arch of C1 to anterior aspect of posterior arch of C3 the anterio...

Ivory vertebra

The ivory vertebra (also known as ivory vertebra sign) sign refers to the diffuse and homogeneous increase in opacity of a vertebral body that otherwise retains its size and contours and with no change in the opacity and size of adjacent intervertebral discs. Pathology Etiology The cause for ...

Sickle cell disease (skeletal manifestations)

Skeletal manifestations of sickle cell disease result from three interconnected sequelae of sickle cell disease 5: vaso-occlusive crises resulting in bone infarcts and subperiosteal hemorrhages chronic anemia resulting in expansion of the medullary spaces infection These, in turn, can predi...

Cystic spinal cord lesions

Cystic spinal lesions can result from a number of disease entities: Primary Chiari malformation Dandy walker malformation diastematomyelia spinal dysraphism certain skeletal dysplasias 2 achondroplasia tricho-rhino-phalangeal syndrome type I ependymal cyst 4 Acquired due to a tumor a...

Vertebroplasty & Kyphoplasty

Vertebroplasty and its balloon-assisted variant, Kyphoplasty, are imaging-guided procedures that involve percutaneous injection of surgical polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) cement into a diseased vertebral body. Vertebroplasty provides pain relief and strengthens the bone of vertebrae weakened by d...

Ventriculus terminalis

The ventriculus terminalis (or persistent terminal ventricle, or terminal ventricle of Krause, or 5th ventricle) is an ependymal-lined fusiform dilatation of the terminal central canal of the spinal cord, positioned at the transition from the tip of the conus medullaris to the origin of the filu...

Spondylolisthesis

Spondylolisthesis (plural: spondylolistheses) denotes the slippage of one vertebra relative to the one below. Terminology Although etymologically it is directionless (see below) and could be applied to both anterolisthesis and retrolisthesis, in practice, however, spondylolisthesis is used sy...

Sulcal artery

Sulcal arteries are penetrating branches from the anterior spinal artery and extend posteriorly through the anterior median fissure of the spinal cord. The sulcal arteries supply the anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord at any cross-sectional level. Successive sulcal arteries generally altern...

Spondylolysis

Spondylolysis is a defect in the pars interarticularis of the neural arch, the portion of the neural arch that connects the superior and inferior articular facets. It is commonly known as pars interarticularis defect or more simply as pars defect. Epidemiology Spondylolysis is present in ~5% ...

Kümmell disease

Kümmell disease is an eponymous name for osteonecrosis and collapse of a vertebral body. Epidemiology Risk factors osteoporosis corticosteroid use alcoholism radiation therapy Pathology Kümmell disease represents delayed (usually two weeks) vertebral body collapse due to ischemia and non...

Modic type endplate changes

Modic type endplate changes represent a classification for vertebral body endplate MRI signal changes, first described in 1988 1. It is widely recognized by radiologists and clinicians and is a useful shorthand for reporting MRIs of the spine. Recently Modic type I has received renewed attentio...

Cervical rib

Cervical ribs are supernumerary or accessory ribs arising from the seventh cervical vertebra. They occur in ~0.5% of the population, are usually bilateral, but often asymmetric 2, and are more common in females. Related pathology Although cervical ribs are usually asymptomatic, they are the mo...

Sacral lesions

A very wide range of lesions can occur in and around the sacrum. Tumors primary sacral tumors malignant sacral chordoma: most common primary sacral tumor 1 chondrosarcoma Ewing sarcoma / pPNET osteosarcoma: often arises from Paget disease in this location multiple myeloma/plasmacytoma ...

Pneumorrhachis

Pneumorrhachis refers to the presence of gas within the spinal canal (either intra- or extradural). It is rare. Clinical presentation Patients can often be asymptomatic 3. Pathology Etiology Pneumorrhachis can result from a number of causes: trauma (traumatic pneumorrhachis): can occur in ...

Grisel syndrome

Grisel syndrome is a rare cause of torticollis that involves subluxation of atlanto-axial joint from inflammatory ligamentous laxity following an infectious process in the head and neck, usually a retropharyngeal abscess. Epidemiology It usually occurs in infants or young children. Clinical p...

Conus medullaris

The conus medullaris is the terminal end of the spinal cord. Gross anatomy After the cord terminates, the nerve roots descend within the spinal canal as individual rootlets, collectively termed the cauda equina. The conus medullaris most commonly terminates at the L1/2 intervertebral disc leve...

Ependymoma vs astrocytoma of the spinal cord

A number of factors are useful when differentiating between spinal cord ependymoma and spinal cord astrocytoma. Ependymoma child or adult more central in location well-defined lesion bone remodeling is common low T1 signal well-defined enhancement syrinx is more common hemorrhage is mo...

Friedreich ataxia

Friedreich ataxia is the most common hereditary progressive ataxia. Epidemiology Thought to have an estimated prevalence of ~1:50,000. There is no recognized gender predilection. Typically present in childhood to adolescence 11. Those with a higher number of trinucleotide repeats (>500) are t...

Perivertebral space

The perivertebral space is one of the deep compartments of the head and neck and includes the prevertebral space and paraspinal space. Gross anatomy The perivertebral space is a cylinder of soft tissue lying posterior to the retropharyngeal space and danger space surrounded by the prevertebral...

Tarlov cyst

Tarlov cysts, also called perineural cysts, are CSF-filled dilatations of the nerve root sheath at the dorsal root ganglion (posterior nerve root sheath). These are type II spinal meningeal cysts that are, by definition, extradural but contain neural tissue. Most Tarlov cysts are asymptomatic, ...

Spinal meningeal cyst

Spinal meningeal cysts are diverticulae of the arachnoid or dura mater or of the nerve root sheath. They are uncommon, usually asymptomatic and typically found incidentally on MRI. Clinical presentation They cysts are usually asymptomatic, but if they are large, they may cause mass effect and...

Sacral agenesis

Sacral agenesis (also considered as part of the caudal regression syndrome) is a rare and severe sacral developmental abnormality. Epidemiology In normal pregnancy, the incidence is between 0.005 and 0.1%. However, in fetuses with diabetic mothers, the incidence rises to 0.2%. Of those with th...

Chance fracture

Chance fractures also referred to as seatbelt fractures, are flexion-distraction type injuries of the spine that extend to involve all three spinal columns. These are unstable injuries and have a high association with intra-abdominal injuries. Pathology Mechanism They tend to occur from a fle...

Spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy is a type of congenital neuromuscular disease affecting anterior horn cells of the brainstem and spinal cord. Epidemiology This disorder affects 1 in 6000-10000 infants 1. Clinical presentation Spinal muscular atrophy typically affects infants and young children, pres...

Posterior ligamentous complex

The posterior ligamentous complex acts to stabilize the vertebral column against flexion and rotation by holding the posterior elements of the neighboring vertebrae in fixed relation with each other. It is sometimes referred to as the posterior tension band although the latter also includes the ...

Facet joint

Facet joints, also known as apophyseal or zygoapophyseal joints, are the synovial articulations of the posterior arch of the vertebrae and form part of the posterior column. Gross anatomy They are symmetrical synovial-lined joints with a fibrous capsule that connect the articular facets of th...

Basilar invagination

Basilar invagination, also called basilar impression, is a congenital or acquired craniocervical junction abnormality where the tip of the odontoid process projects above the foramen magnum. Terminology The following terms are often used interchangeably because they describe upwards migration...

Occipital condyle fracture

Occipital condylar fractures are uncommon injuries usually resulting from high-energy blunt trauma. They are considered a specific type of basilar skull fracture, and importantly can be seen along with craniocervical dissociation. Treatment of isolated injury is generally conservative, unless t...

Scottie dog sign (spine)

The Scottie dog sign (often seen spelled Scotty but Scottie is the correct spelling) refers to the normal appearance of the lumbar spine when seen on oblique radiographic projection. On oblique views, the posterior elements of the vertebra form the figure of a Scottie dog with: the transverse p...

Classification of spinal meningeal cysts

Spinal meningeal cysts can be classified according to a system published by Nabor et al. 2: type I: extradural meningeal cyst without neural tissue type Ia: extradural spinal arachnoid cyst type Ib: sacral meningocele type II: extradural meningeal cyst containing neural tissue, e.g. Tarlov c...

Caudal regression syndrome

Caudal regression syndrome represents a spectrum of structural defects of the caudal region. Malformations vary from isolated partial agenesis of the coccyx to lumbosacral agenesis. Epidemiology Caudal regression syndrome is rare, with an estimated incidence of 1:7500-100,000 7,10. The vast m...

Ganglioneuroma

Ganglioneuromas are fully differentiated neuronal tumors that do not contain immature elements and potentially occur anywhere along with the peripheral autonomic ganglion sites. On imaging, usually, they present as well-defined solid masses and can be quite large at presentation. Generally, th...

Seronegative spondyloarthritis

Seronegative spondyloarthritides, also known as spondyloarthropathies (SpA), are a group of musculoskeletal syndromes linked by common clinical features and immunopathologic mechanisms. The subtypes of spondyloarthritis are usually distinguished on the basis of history and clinical findings. Te...

Widening of interpedicular distance

The interpedicular distance, which is the distance measured between the pedicles on frontal/coronal imaging, can be widened in a number of situations. Pathology Etiology diastematomyelia syringomyelia conditions that can cause dural ectasia (can potentially cause widening) Marfan syndrome ...

Facet dislocation

Facet dislocation refers to the anterior displacement of one vertebral body on another. Without a fracture, the only way anterior displacement can occur is by dislocation of the facets. Facet dislocation can occur to varying degrees: subluxed facets perched facets locked facets The injury ...

Burst fracture

Burst fractures are a type of compression fracture related to high-energy axial loading spinal trauma that results in disruption of a vertebral body endplate and the posterior vertebral body cortex. Retropulsion of posterior cortex fragments into the spinal canal is frequently included in the de...

Fish vertebra

Fish vertebra, also known as codfish vertebra, describes the biconcave appearance of vertebrae (especially lumbar vertebrae). Pathology Etiology bone mineral density disorders osteoporosis osteomalacia 6 renal osteodystrophy osteogenesis imperfecta anemias sickle cell disease: caution r...

Anterior vertebral body beaking

Anterior vertebral body beaking occurs in a number of conditions and may emanate from the central portion or the lower third of the vertebral body. Middle third Morquio syndrome 1 (middle for Morquio) Lower third Hurler syndrome 2 achondroplasia 3 cretinism 5 pseudoachondroplasia 7 Down ...

Tuberculous spondylitis

Tuberculous spondylitis, also known as Pott disease, refers to vertebral body osteomyelitis and intervertebral discitis from tuberculosis (TB). The spine is the most frequent location of musculoskeletal tuberculosis, and commonly related symptoms are back pain and lower limb weakness/paraplegia....

Bone within a bone appearance

Bone within a bone is a descriptive term applied to bones that appear to have another bone within them. There are numerous causes including: normal thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (neonates and infants) growth recovery lines (after infancy) cortical splitting and new periostitis sickle cell d...

Sacrococcygeal teratoma

Sacrococcygeal teratoma refers to a teratoma arising in the sacrococcygeal region. The coccyx is almost always involved 6. Epidemiology It is the most commonest congenital tumor in fetus 11 and neonate 3. The incidence is estimated at ~1:35000-40000. There is recognized female predilection wit...

Gibbus deformity

A gibbus deformity is a short-segment structural thoracolumbar kyphosis resulting in sharp angulation. Pathology Etiology There are a number of causes which can be divided into congenital and acquired. Congenital achondroplasia cretinism (congenital hypothyroidism) Apert syndrome Coffin-...

Primary bone tumors of the spine

The most common tumor of the spine is metastatic deposits. A number of both benign and malignant tumors may arise primarily from the spine. Benign osteoma osteoid osteoma osteoblastoma osteochondroma giant cell tumor aneurysmal bone cyst Langerhans cell histiocytosis hemangioma Maligna...

Dural ectasia

Dural ectasia refers to ballooning or widening of the dural sac which can result in posterior vertebral scalloping and is associated with herniation of nerve root sleeves. Clinical presentation Patients with dural ectasia may present with low back pain or radicular pain in the buttocks or legs...

Klippel-Feil syndrome

Klippel-Feil syndrome is a complex heterogeneous entity that results in cervical vertebral fusion. Two or more non-segmented cervical vertebrae are usually sufficient for diagnosis. Epidemiology There is a recognized female predilection 1. Klippel-Feil syndrome has an incidence of 1:40,000-42,...

Congenital anomalies of the posterior atlas arch

Congenital anomalies of the posterior arch of the atlas (C1) are relatively common anomalies. They may range from partial defects presenting as clefts to complete absence of the posterior arch (aplasia). These anomalies are classified according to Currarino (see below). It should not be confuse...

Guillain-Barré syndrome

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a heterogeneous group of autoimmune polyradiculopathies, involving sensory, motor, and autonomic nerves. It is the most common cause of rapidly progressive flaccid paralysis. It is believed to be one of a number of related conditions, sharing a similar underlying...

Vertebra plana

Vertebra plana (plural: vertebrae planae), also known as the pancake, silver dollar or coin-on-edge vertebra, is the term given when a vertebral body has lost almost its entire height anteriorly and posteriorly, representing a very advanced compression fracture. Pathology It can occur in a var...

Diastematomyelia

Diastematomyelia, also known as a split cord malformation, refers to a type of spinal dysraphism (spina bifida occulta) when there is a longitudinal split in the spinal cord. Terminology Although traditionally it has been distinguished from diplomyelia (in which the cord is duplicated rather ...

Ochronosis

Ochronosis, or alkaptonuria (AKU), is a rare multisystem autosomal recessive metabolic disorder. On imaging, the most particular presentation is on the spine, with osteoporotic bones and dense disc calcifications. Terminology The term ochronosis usually refers to the bluish-black discolourat...

Calcific tendinitis of the longus colli muscle

Calcific tendinitis of the longus colli muscles is an inflammatory/granulomatous response to the deposition of calcium hydroxyapatite crystals in the tendons of the longus colli muscle. It is sometimes more generically known as calcific prevertebral tendinitis or, less accurately, as retropharyn...

Cuneate fasciculus

The cuneate fasciculus, also known as the fasciculus cuneatus (plural: fasciculi cuneati) or column of Burdach, represents the lateral portion of the dorsal columns and carries input from between and including C1 and T6 1. Function The cuneate fasciculus is responsible for transmitting vibrat...

Abscess

Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1: a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue peripheral halo of viable neutrophils surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood...

Foix-Alajouanine syndrome

Foix-Alajouanine syndrome refers to subacute, progressive myelopathy due to venous hypertension from a spinal dural arteriovenous fistula. Clinical presentation Patients have paraparesis (leg weakness), sensory loss in the legs, and loss of bowel and bladder sphincter control 1. Pathology Sp...

Spinal arteriovenous malformations

Spinal arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are characterized by arteriovenous shunting with a true nidus. They represent ~25% of spinal vascular malformations. Epidemiology Different types of spinal AVM (see below) have different ages of presentation, but overall 80% present between the age of...

Hyperextension cervical injuries

Hyperextension cervical injuries are not uncommon and extremely serious: avulsion fractures of the anterior arch of the atlas (C1) vertical fracture through the posterior arch of the atlas as a result of compression fractures of the dens of C2 hangman fracture of C2 hyperexte...

Odontoid fracture

Odontoid process fracture, also known as a peg or dens fracture, occurs where there is a fracture through the odontoid process of C2. Pathology The mechanism of injury is variable, and can occur both during flexion or extension, and with or without compression 5. Classification There are two...

Disc protrusion

Disc protrusions are a type of disc herniation characterized by protrusion of disc content beyond the normal confines of the intervertebral disc, over a segment less than 25% of the circumference of the disc. The width of the base is wider than the largest diameter of the disc material which pro...

Disc extrusion

Disc extrusion is a type of intervertebral disc herniation and is distinguished from a disc protrusion in that it: in at least one plane, has a broader dome (B) than a neck (A) and/or extends above or below the disc level (into the suprapedicular or infrapedicular zone) Disc extrusions are a...

Disc herniation

Disc herniation refers to the displacement of intervertebral disc material beyond the normal confines of the disc but involving less than 25% of the circumference (to distinguish it from a disc bulge). A herniation may contain nucleus pulposus, vertebral endplate cartilage, apophyseal bone/osteo...

Disc bulge

A disc bulge represents displacement of the outer fibers of the annulus fibrosus beyond the margins of the adjacent vertebral bodies, involving more than one-quarter (25% or 90°) of the circumference of an intervertebral disc 3. Because it is limited by the annulus fibrosus it does not extend ab...

Disc desiccation

Disc desiccation (also known as disc dehydration) is an extremely common degenerative change of intervertebral discs. The incidence climbs with age, and to a large degree a gradual dehydration is a 'normal' part of disc aging. It results from replacement of the hydrophilic glycosaminoglycans wit...

Annular fissure

Annular fissures, also known as annular tears, are a degenerative deficiency of one or more layers that make up the annulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc. Terminology Many authors prefer the term "annular fissure" over "annular tear", as the latter seems to imply acute injury 1,2. In th...

Annulus fibrosus

The annulus fibrosus (plural: annuli fibrosi) surrounds the nucleus pulposus and together they form the intervertebral disc. Gross anatomy The annulus comprises 15 to 20 collagenous (type I) laminae which run obliquely from the edge of one vertebra down to the edge of the vertebra below. The d...

Nucleus pulposus

The nucleus pulposus (plural: nuclei pulposi) is the central part of each intervertebral disc. Gross anatomy It is located within the annulus fibrosus and between the vertebral body endplates. It is composed of a thin lattice of collagen fibers (type II) which traverse though hydrophilic glyco...

Foraminal disc protrusion

Foraminal disc protrusions are an important entity to recognize for a number of reasons, these include: they are relatively easy to overlook as they do not impinge upon the spinal canal they do not narrow the subarticular recess, but compresses the exiting nerve root only, thus clinically mimi...

Intervertebral disc

Intervertebral discs form the articulations between adjacent vertebral bodies from C2 to S1, thus forming 23 in total (although segmentation variations are not uncommon). Together they account for ~25% of the total height of the vertebral column which decreases with age as disc height is lost th...

Perched facet joint

Perched facet joint is a vertebral facet joint whose inferior articular process appears to sit 'perched' on the ipsilateral superior articular process of the vertebra below. Any further anterior subluxation will result in dislocation, with one facet "jumping" over the other and becoming locked ...

Anterior spinal artery

The anterior spinal artery supplies the anterior portion of the spinal cord and arises from the vertebral artery (V4, intradural segment) in the region of the medulla oblongata. The two vertebral arteries (one of which is usually bigger than the other) anastamose in the midline to form a single ...

Myelomeningocele

Myelomeningocele, also known as spina bifida cystica, is a complex congenital spinal anomaly that results in spinal cord malformation (myelodysplasia). Epidemiology It is one of the commonest congenital CNS anomalies and thought to occur in approximately 1:500 of live births 5. There may be a...

Chiari II malformation

Chiari II malformations are relatively common congenital malformations of the spine and posterior fossa characterized by myelomeningocele (lumbosacral spina bifida aperta) and a small posterior fossa with descent of the brainstem, cerebellar tonsils, and vermis through the foramen magnum. Numero...

Syrinx

Syrinx (pl. syringes or syrinxes 7) is the collective name given to hydromyelia, syringomyelia, syringobulbia, syringopontia, syringomesencephaly, and syringocephalus. Terminology The use of the general term "syrinx" has grown out of the difficulty in distinguishing between hydromyelia and syr...

Intervertebral disc disease nomenclature

Intervertebral disc disease nomenclature has changed over the years, and a familiarity with current definitions is essential if clear communication is to be achieved via radiology reports or referrals, especially as lumbar disc disease is a common problem and a source of a great deal of imaging....

Lhermitte sign (spinal cord)

Lhermitte sign or the barber chair phenomenon is an electrical shock sensation running down the spine and into the limb on neck flexion. It suggests compression of the upper cervical spinal cord and/or brainstem. Pathology It is typically seen with multiple sclerosis but is also associated wit...

Spinal arachnoid cyst

Spinal arachnoid cysts are relatively uncommon and may be either intradural (type III meningeal cyst) or extradural (type IA meningeal cyst). This article specifically focuses on spinal arachnoid cysts. For a general discussion of arachnoid cysts, refer to the main article: arachnoid cyst. Epi...

Posterior inferior cerebellar artery

Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) is one of the three vessels that provide arterial supply to the cerebellum. It is the most variable and tortuous cerebellar artery. Gross anatomy Origin The PICA is a paired artery that originates from the vertebral artery V4 segment. However, its ...

Spondylodiscitis

Spondylodiscitis, (rare plural: spondylodiscitides) also referred to as discitis-osteomyelitis, is characterized by infection involving the intervertebral disc and adjacent vertebrae. Terminology In adults, the use of the term discitis is generally discouraged as isolated infection of the spin...

Vertebral artery

The vertebral arteries (VA) are paired arteries, each arising from the respective subclavian artery and ascending in the neck to supply the posterior fossa and occipital lobes, as well as provide segmental vertebral and spinal column blood supply. Summary origin: branches of the 1st part of th...

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