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Talar dislocation

There are many types of talar dislocation given its multiple articulations: tibiotalar dislocation subtalar dislocation total talar dislocation talonavicular dislocation Chopart fracture-dislocation

Talar fractures

Talar fractures are an uncommon injury, accounting for <5% of all foot fractures. Recognition of the unique talar anatomy is important for correct diagnosis. Pathology Location talar head fractures talar neck fractures talar body fractures talar dome osteochondral fracture ...

Anterior cruciate ligament avulsion fracture

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) avulsion fracture or tibial eminence avulsion fracture is a type of avulsion fracture of the knee. This typically involves separation of the tibial attachment of the ACL to variable degrees. Separation at the femoral attachment is rare 5. Epidemiology It is mor...

Disarticulation

The term disarticulation refers to the disconnection of all or part of a limb from the body, specifically through a joint. This is in contrast to amputation, which is the disconnection or removal of the structure through a bone.

Amputation (generic)

The term amputation refers to the disconnection of all or part of a limb from the body. Specifically, amputation is defined as the removal of the structure through a bone. This is in contrast to disarticulation, which is the removal of the structure through a joint. When due to trauma, traumati...

Off-ended

The term off-ended is used by some orthopedic surgeons and radiologists to describe a long bone fracture that is displaced by more than the width of the bone. An off-ended fracture is often shortened due to muscle contraction.

Orbital emphysema

Orbital emphysema is the presence of gas within the orbital soft tissues. It is usually due to orbital fractures communicating with the paranasal sinuses but can be caused by penetrating trauma and infection. It is a common finding also after orbital or ocular surgery. Location preseptal ...

Describing a fracture (an approach)

Describing a fracture is a basic requirement when making an assessment of a plain radiograph. There are many ways to approach the assessment of the radiograph; this is just one approach. I: Describe the radiograph What radiograph (or radiographs) are you looking at? Check the who, what, why, w...

Fallen lung sign

The fallen lung sign (also known as CT fallen lung sign) describes the appearance of collapsed lung away from the mediastinum encountered with tracheobronchial injury (in particular those >2 cm away from the carina). It is helpful to look for this rare but specific sign, in cases of unexplained ...

Cranioplasty

Cranioplasty is the surgical intervention to repair cranial defects, and is mostly performed after traumatic injuries. The procedure is performed using different materials and techniques, with no consensus about the best option. Methyl methacrylate is the prosthetic material most extensively use...

Extracranial brain herniation

Extracranial or transcalvarial brain herniation refers to herniation of brain tissue external to the calvaria through a skull bone defect, which may be post-traumatic or post-surgical. Unlike encephaloceles, brain herniation is not surrounded by the meninges. Craniectomy may be performed to de...

Investigating head injury (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Investigating head injury is frequently required because head injury is common: in the US there are 1.3 million traumatic brain injuries per year 1. Causes include falls (children and the elderly), motor vehicle accidents (...

Spinal wedge fracture

Spinal wedge (compression) fractures are hyperflexion injuries to the vertebral body resulting from axial loading. Most commonly affecting the anterior aspect of the vertebral body, wedge fractures are considered a single-column (i.e. stable) fracture. Terminology Less commonly wedge fracture...

Subluxed facet joint

Subluxed facet joint is the mildest form of facet dislocation in which the ligamentous injury leads to partial uncovering of a facet joint (cf. complete uncovering in perched facet). This results in mild anterior displacement of one vertebral body on another (anterolisthesis).

Allen and Ferguson classification of subaxial cervical spine injuries

Allen and Ferguson classification is used for research purposes to classify subaxial spine injuries and is based purely on the mechanism of injury and position of the neck during injury. This classification was proposed by Allen and Ferguson in 19823 and at the time of writing (July 2016) remain...

Levine and Edwards classification

The Levine and Edwards classification is the most widely used classification system of hangman fractures of the C2 vertebra 3. The injury, also known as traumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis, and the amount and direction of displacement determines stability and guides treatment. The classifica...

Cervical spine fracture classification systems

There are several cervical spine fracture/injury classification systems. These can be divided by site and are listed below in order of recency: upper cervical spine (including craniocervical junction) injuries 1 AO Spine classification of upper cervical injuries occipital condyle fractures T...

Locked facet joint

Locked facet joint is a type of facet joint dislocation that results from jumping of the inferior articular process over the superior articular process of the vertebra below and becomes locked in the position. It can be unilateral or bilateral. Radiographic features Plain radiograph The tip ...

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine, also known as hyperflexion sprain, is a ligamentous injury of the cervical spine. Clinical presentation Patients present with severe, focal neck pain. There may be neurological symptoms due to spinal cord injury. Pathology Anterior subluxation of t...

Bilateral facet dislocation

A bilateral facet dislocation is an unstable flexion distraction type of dislocation of the cervical spine, often a result of buckling force. Occasionally, the bilateral facet dislocation has been named a 'doubly-locked' vertebral injury giving the impression of stability. However, due to comple...

Transverse process fracture

Transverse process fractures are common sequelae of trauma, although they are considered minor and stable lumbar spine fractures. There is a strong association between transverse process fractures and other traumatic injuries. Pathology Transverse process fracture most commonly occurs in the u...

Seatbelt syndrome

The seatbelt syndrome is the constellation of traumatic thoracic, abdominal and/or vertebral column injuries associated with three-point seatbelts 1,2: bowel perforation mesenteric tear sternal fracture lumbar spine fracture female breast trauma

Seatbelt sign (abdomen)

The seatbelt sign is both a clinical and radiological sign. It is simply the presence of ecchymosis and/or abraded skin in the distribution of a seatbelt (i.e. horizontal and/or diagonal) extending across the abdomen evident after a motor vehicle accident. Epidemiology A positive abdominal sea...

Condylar process fractures

Condylar process fractures are fractures of the condylar process of the mandible. The condylar process of the mandible is involved in around 30% of all mandibular fractures. Condylar fractures are classified according to the location of the fracture and the direction displacement of the condyle...

Total talar dislocation

Total talar dislocation, also known as extrusion of the talus, is a tri-articular dislocation of talus at the tibiotalar, talonavicular and subtalar joints. Pantalar dislocation and luxatio tali totalis are also used as alternative terms for such a traumatic insult.7 Most injuries are compound....

Deltoid ligament injury

Deltoid ligament injuries involve the deltoid ligament that forms the medial part of the ankle joint. Pathology Mechanism of injury It occurs due to eversion and/or pronation injury, or can be associated with lateral ankle fractures. The deltoid ligament is usually avulsed from its tibial at...

Posterior talar process fracture

Posterior talar process fractures may involve the medial or lateral tubercle of the posterior process of the talus. The posterior talofibular ligament attaches to the lateral tubercle and flexor hallucis longus runs between these two tubercles. The unfused ossification center of the lateral tube...

Talar head fracture

Talar head fractures are rare fractures that have a high frequency of co-existing foot fractures. Epidemiology Talar head fractures account for ~5% (range 2.6-10%) of talar fractures 4. Pathology Talar head fractures are almost always associated with other foot fractures, frequently with pe...

Distal radioulnar joint dislocation

Isolated distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) dislocations are rare and are more commonly part of complex forearm fracture-dislocations. Clinical presentation Wrist pain, swelling and deformity following FOOSH or direct trauma. The patient will be unable to supinate/pronate the forearm 1,2. Patho...

Skull fractures (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Skull fractures usually occur following significant head injury and may herald underlying neurological pathology. Reference article This is a summary article; read more in our article on skull fractures. Summary anatomy...

Coracoid process fracture

Coracoid process fractures are an uncommon type of scapular fracture. They do not often occur in isolation and are often associated with acromial, clavicular, or other scapular fractures, as well as glenohumeral dislocation or acromioclavicular joint injury. Epidemiology Coracoid fractures rep...

Uncal herniation

Uncal herniation is a subtype of transtentorial downward brain herniation that involves the uncus, usually related to cerebral mass effect increasing the intracranial pressure. Clinical presentation pupils and globe clinical features 3 initially, an ipsilateral dilated pupil that is unrespons...

Costal cartilage injury

Costal cartilage injuries occur in the cartilage connecting the ribs anteriorly to the sternum. They most commonly manifest as edema and fractures with the latter being the focus of this article. Epidemiology There is little published data (c. 2021) on costal cartilage fractures. Most reporte...

Bone bruise

Bone bruises (also known as bone contusion, trabecular microfracture) are an osseous injury that results from compression of bone structures. Pathology Bone bruises represent trabecular microfractures with hemorrhage and without a discrete fracture line or contour abnormality 4. They typically...

Priapism

Priapism (rarely penile priapism, to differentiate from the very rare clitoral priapism) is a prolonged erection that persists beyond or is not related to sexual stimulation. Imaging, particularly Doppler ultrasound, can help distinguish between ischemic (low-flow) priapism, which is a urologic ...

Bipartite scaphoid

A bipartite scaphoid is a rare example of a divided carpus. There is controversy whether this condition is congenital (i.e. normal variant) or post-traumatic. Bipartite scaphoids may be unilateral or bilateral. Diagnosis Diagnostic criteria have been proposed 3: no history of traumatic injury...

Goldman classification of urethral injuries

The Goldman classification of urethral injuries is a more widely accepted classification than one proposed by the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST). The Goldman classification is based on the anatomical location of the urethral injury and was initially proposed by Colapinto a...

Lateral talar process fracture

Lateral talar process fractures or snowboarder fractures are talus fractures that can mimic a lateral ankle sprain. It may be an isolated fracture or occur as a component of more complex ankle fractures. Mechanism The fracture occurs when the foot is dorsiflexed and inverted, as can happen wit...

Urethral injury

Urethral injuries can result in long-term morbidity and most commonly result from trauma. The male urethra is much more commonly injured than the female urethra and is the focus of this article. Clinical presentation In the setting of trauma, the classic triad of blood of the external urethral...

Pipkin femoral head fracture classification

Pipkin classification is the most commonly used classification for femoral head fractures, which are uncommon but are associated with hip dislocations. Classification type I: fracture inferior to the fovea capitis, a small fracture not involving the weightbearing surface type II: fracture ext...

Facial fractures

Facial fractures are commonly caused by blunt or penetrating trauma at moderate or high levels of force. Such injuries may be sustained during a fall, physical assault, motor vehicle collision, or gunshot wound. The facial bones are thin and relatively fragile, making them susceptible to injury....

Naso-orbitoethmoid (NOE) complex fracture

Naso-orbitoethmoid (NOE) fractures (also known as orbitoethmoid or nasoethmoidal complex fractures) are fractures which involve the central upper midface. Pathology Naso-orbitoethmoid fractures are caused by a high-impact force applied anteriorly to the nose and transmitted posteriorly through...

Rib fractures

Rib fractures are a common consequence of trauma and can cause life-threatening complications. Epidemiology Associations Rib fractures are often associated with other injuries and the greater the number of rib fractures the more likely are associated injuries 1,3: brachial plexus or subclavi...

Thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS)

The thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS), also sometimes known as the thoracolumbar injury severity score (TISS), was developed by the Spine Trauma Group in 2005 to overcome some of the perceived difficulties regarding the use of other thoracolumbar spinal fracture clas...

Apophyseal avulsion fractures of the pelvis and hip

Apophyseal avulsion fractures of the pelvis and hip are relatively common among physically active adolescents and young adults. Epidemiology Pelvic and hip apophyseal injuries typically occur in the 14 to 25 year age range. Mechanism Kicking sports, such as soccer, and gymnastics are frequen...

Trochanteric fracture

A trochanteric fracture is a fracture involving the greater and/or lesser trochanters of the femur. Classification Fractures in these regions can be classified as: intertrochanteric fracture pertrochanteric: intertrochanteric, involving both trochanters subtrochanteric fracture ...

Subcapital fracture

Subcapital fracture is the most common type of intracapsular neck of femur fracture. The fracture line extends through the junction of the head and neck of femur. Classification Although many classifications are proposed Garden classification and Pauwel classification are generally followed fr...

Depressed skull fracture

Depressed skull fractures result in the bone of the skull vault being folded (depressed) inward into the cerebral parenchyma. It is usually the result of a high energy impact to the skull. Pathology These mostly (~75%) occur in the frontoparietal region 3. Associations There are a number of ...

Aubergine sign (penis)

The aubergine sign (also known as egg-plant sign or deformity) is a clinical sign of a fractured penis. Hemorrhage beyond the tunica albuginea produces swelling and bruising of the penis simulating the appearance of an aubergine.

Ureteric injury

Ureteric injury is a relatively uncommon, but severe event, which may result in serious complications as a diagnosis is often delayed. Clinical presentation Ureteric injuries unreliably demonstrate macro- or microscopic hematuria as it may be absent in up to 25% of patients 5, 6. Classic clin...

Pisiform fracture

Pisiform fractures are an uncommon fracture of the carpal bones. Epidemiology They are only thought to account for ~1-2% of all carpal fractures. Some older sources suggest that they are rarer than this but consensus seems to be that trapezoid fractures are the rarest 6. Approximately 50% occ...

Pelvic bucket handle fracture

Bucket handle fractures of the pelvis are a result of anteroposterior compression energy vectors. It is described as a vertically-oriented fracture through ipsilateral superior and inferior pubic rami with contralateral sacroiliac joint disruption/dislocation 1, 2. See also pelvic fractures b...

Bucket handle appearance (disambiguation)

Bucket handle appearance is used in imaging to refer to several different entities: bucket handle fracture - non-accidental injury bucket handle fracture of the pelvis bucket handle meniscal tear bucket handle mesenteric injury

Hip dislocation

Hip dislocation is a relatively rare entity and may be congenital or acquired. Epidemiology Hip dislocations account for ~5% of all dislocations 3. Pathology There are numerous patterns of dislocation 1: posterior hip dislocation (most common ~85%) anterior hip dislocation (~10%) inferio...

Complete fracture

Complete fractures are fractures where the parts of the bone that have been fractured are completely separated from each other. There is complete separation of the cortex circumferentially. Complete fractures can be classified as: transverse: straight across the bone oblique: oblique line acr...

Piedmont fracture

Piedmont fractures have been variably defined in the literature. Many suggest that Piedmont fractures are synonymous with Galeazzi fractures. That is a fracture of the radius at the middle and distal third with associated disruption of the distal radioulnar joint. The initial report about the s...

Proximal femoral fractures

Proximal femoral fractures are a subset of fractures that occur in the hip region. They tend to occur in older patients, and in those who have osteoporosis. In this group of patients, the fracture is usually the result of low-impact trauma although, in younger patients they are usually victims o...

Aortic pseudoaneurysm

Aortic pseudoaneurysm typically occurs as a result of trauma +/- intervention, and is considered a subset of traumatic aortic injury in the majority of cases. They can be acute or chronic. Pathology Aortic pseudoaneurysms are contained ruptures of the aorta in which the majority of the aortic ...

Fracture-a-la-signature (skull fracture)

Fracture-a-la-signature (or signature fracture) is another term used to described a depressed skull fracture. Fracture-a-la-signature derives its name from forensic medicine because the size and shape of a depressed skull fracture may give information on the type of weapon used. It can be a si...

Sternal fracture

Sternal fractures occur in ~5% of blunt chest trauma with the manubrium being the most commonly injured part. Epidemiology Fractures of the sternum are seen in between 3-6.8% of all motor vehicle collisions 1. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) often results in sternal fractures, one autopsy...

Trimalleolar fracture

Trimalleolar fractures refer to a three-part fracture of the ankle. The fractures involve the medial malleolus, the posterior aspect of the tibial plafond (referred to as the posterior malleolus) and the lateral malleolus. Having three parts, this is a more unstable fracture and may be associate...

Splenic pseudocyst

Splenic pseudocysts, also known as secondary splenic cysts, are acquired cystic lesions not delineated by a true epithelial wall. They represent the majority of the splenic cystic lesions, corresponding to approximately 80% of them (cf. splenic epithelial cysts). The main causes are: sple...

Lateral patellar dislocation

Lateral patellar dislocation refers to lateral displacement followed by dislocation of the patella due to disruptive changes to the medial patellar retinaculum. Epidemiology Patellar dislocation accounts for ~3% of all knee injuries and is commonly seen in those individuals who participate in ...

Sanders CT classification of calcaneal fracture

The Sanders classification system is used to assess intraarticular calcaneal fractures, which are those involving the posterior facet of the calcaneus. This classification is based on the number of intraarticular fracture lines and their location on semicoronal CT images. This classification is ...

Ping pong skull fracture

Ping pong skull fracture or pond skull fracture refers to a depressed skull fracture of the infant skull caused by inner buckling of the calvarium. It is seen in newborns because of the soft and resilient nature of their bones (like greenstick fractures of long bones) and the fracture line is no...

Pancreatic trauma

The pancreas is uncommonly injured in blunt trauma. However, pancreatic trauma has a high morbidity and mortality rate. Epidemiology The pancreas is injured in ~7.5% (range 2-13%) of blunt trauma cases 1,3,7. Motor vehicle accidents account for the vast majority of cases. Penetrating trauma co...

Isolated free fluid in trauma

Isolated free fluid in trauma may or may not represent a significant injury, and this creates a diagnostic dilemma in determining appropriate treatment for these patients. Epidemiology The presence of isolated free fluid in trauma occurs in 3-5% of blunt trauma patients 1-4. Pathology The c...

Bowel and mesenteric trauma

Bowel and mesenteric trauma can result from blunt force, penetrating and iatrogenic trauma. Epidemiology The bowel and mesentery are injured in ~2.5% (range 0.3-5%) of blunt force abdominal trauma 1,3,5,8. However not surprisingly, bowel and mesenteric injuries are more frequent after penetrat...

Adrenal gland trauma

Adrenal gland trauma most commonly results from blunt force trauma. Epidemiology Adrenal gland trauma is present on 1-2% of CT imaging in blunt trauma although the occurrence is thought to be much higher as injury has been demonstrated at 28% in one autopsy series 1-4. The right adrenal glan...

Splenic trauma

Splenic trauma can occur after blunt or penetrating trauma or secondary to medical intervention (i.e. iatrogenic). The spleen is the most frequently injured internal organ after blunt trauma. Epidemiology In blunt trauma, the spleen can account for up to 49% of abdominal organ injuries 2. Cli...

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan is a point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed at the time of presentation of a trauma patient. It is invariably performed by a clinician, who should be formally trained, and is considered as an 'extension' of the trauma cl...

Liver trauma

The liver is one of the most frequently damaged organs in blunt trauma, and liver trauma is associated with a significant mortality rate. Epidemiology In blunt abdominal trauma, the liver is injured ~5% (range 1-10%) of the time 1,3. Clinical presentation Patients can present with right uppe...

Stieda fracture

Stieda fractures refer to a bony avulsion injury of the medial collateral ligament (MCL) at the medial femoral condyle. When it fails to unite, it is known as a Pellegrini Stieda lesion. It should not be confused with a Stieda process fracture of the talus. Clinical presentation Avulsion of t...

Trauma in pregnancy

Trauma is a leading cause of mortality in pregnancy. Pregnancy increases the incidence and severity of abdominal trauma in females. Epidemiology Trauma affects up to 7% of pregnancies, and the incidence of pregnancy in level 1 trauma patients is estimated to be ~2% 1. Pathology Etiology 9...

Scrotal hematocele

Scrotal hematoceles are collections of blood within the scrotal sac, but outside of the testis. Pathology A hematocele normally results from trauma to the scrotum, or on occasion following surgery. Some think that a varicocele is a risk factor for developing a hematocele 4. Radiographic featu...

Esophageal perforation

Esophageal perforation is a rare but serious medical emergency with a very high mortality rate, especially if the diagnosis is delayed. Epidemiology Most patients are in their sixties with a slight male predominance 5. Clinical presentation Esophageal rupture is iatrogenic from instrumentat...

Pronator quadratus sign

The pronator quadratus sign, also known as MacEwan sign, can be an indirect sign of distal forearm trauma. It relies on displacement of the fat pad that lies superficial to the pronator quadratus muscle as seen on a lateral wrist radiograph. Pathology Displacement, anterior bowing, or oblitera...

Penile fracture

Penile fracture or rupture is a rare event, however one that requires emergency diagnosis and intervention. It is a rupture of the penile tunica albuginea of the corpora cavernosa or spongiosum caused by trauma to an erect penis, most commonly during sexual intercourse. The urologist needs to kn...

Reverse Bankart lesion

Reverse Bankart lesion is defined as the detachment of posteroinferior labrum with avulsion of posterior capsular periosteum. This leads to laxity of the posterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament with posterior displacement of the humeral head. As is the case with a Bankart lesion, t...

Reverse Hill-Sachs defect

Reverse Hill-Sachs defect, also known as a McLaughlin lesion, is defined as an impaction fracture of anteromedial aspect of the humeral head following posterior dislocation of the humerus. It is of surgical importance to identify this lesion and correct it to prevent osteonecrosis. Radiographic...

Retroperitoneal hemorrhage

Retroperitoneal hemorrhage can be a source of significant yet occult blood loss. Terminology Some articles conflate and/or confuse retroperitoneal hemorrhage and Wunderlich syndrome 5. However Wunderlich syndrome refers primarily to bleeding around the kidney, not the retroperitoneum in genera...

Gilula three carpal arcs

Gilula three carpal arcs are used in the assessment of normal alignment of the carpus on PA wrist radiographs. They entail: first arc: is a smooth curve outlining the proximal convexities of the scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum second arc: traces the distal concave surfaces of the same bones t...

Bowing fracture

Bowing fractures are incomplete fractures of tubular long bones in pediatric patients (especially the radius and ulna) that often require no intervention and heal with remodeling. Epidemiology Bowing fractures are almost exclusively found in children. However, there have been several case repo...

Glass foreign body

Glass foreign bodies may be present if they are ingested, inserted, or as a result of an injury. All glass is radiopaque 7. Epidemiology The prevalence of glass foreign bodies in wounds from injury has been recorded at a rate of 1.5% in superficial (subcutaneous) wounds and 7.5% of deeper woun...

CT comma sign (head)

The CT comma sign is a characteristic sign seen in head trauma. It is the presence of concurrent epidural and subdural hematomas, which gives the characteristic appearance of this sign as a "comma" shape.

Pulmonary fat embolism

Pulmonary fat embolism is a specific subtype of pulmonary embolism where the embolic particles are composed of fat. Pathology It usually occurs in the context of a long bone fracture and may occur in 1-3% of patients with simple tibial or femoral fractures and up to 20-33% of individuals with ...

Double delta sign (meniscal tear)

The double delta sign is a feature that has been described in a bucket handle meniscal tear when the inner meniscal fragment flipped anteriorly adjacent to the anterior horn of the donor site and is referred to as a displaced bucket handle tear. The original location of the posterior horn remain...

Renal trauma

Renal trauma can result from direct, blunt, penetrating, and iatrogenic injury. Epidemiology Renal injuries account for ~10% of abdominal trauma, and thus the demographic of affected individuals reflect that population. The incidence of renal injuries increases in pre-existing congenital or ac...

Brachial plexus injuries

Brachial plexus injuries are a spectrum of upper limb neurological deficits secondary to partial or complete injury to the brachial plexus, which provides the nerve supply of upper limb muscles. Clinical presentation Trauma, usually by motor vehicle accidents, involves severe traction on the ...

Anterior talofibular ligament injury

Anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) injury is the most common of the ligament injuries that can occur as part of the lateral ligament complex injuries 2. The injuries can comprise either soft tissue tears, avulsion fractures or both. Pathology Anterior talofibular ligament injuries typically ...

Hemopneumothorax

A hemopneumothorax (plural: hemopneumothoraces) (or, less commonly, haematopneumothorax or pneumohemothorax) is a term given when there is concurrent presence of a hemothorax and pneumothorax. It is a variant of a hydropneumothorax. Epidemiology Approximately 5% of patients with pneumothorax ...

Scapular fracture

Scapula fractures are uncommon injuries, representing ~3% of all shoulder fractures. Epidemiology Associations Scapular fractures are often associated with other injuries due to the high energy trauma that is usually the underlying cause: clavicle fracture rib fracture sternal fracture sp...

Foot (weight-bearing dorsoplantar view)

The weight-bearing dorsoplantar foot radiograph is a specialized projection of the foot. Nonweightbearing views (e.g. DP foot) are inadequate for the assessment of alignment because the bones of the feet are not in a functional position. Indications This view is key to the assessment of foot a...

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