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Paratesticular tumors

A paratesticular mass may derive from a number of structures that surround the testis within the scrotum; most commonly, they derive from the spermatic cord. Pathology The masses can be categorized as benign (70%) or malignant (30%). Etiology Benign spermatic cord lipoma (most common parat...

Prostate cystic disease

Prostate cystic disease encompasses a wide variety of pathologies that all result in cyst formation within the prostate. Epidemiology Prostatic cysts are common, and ~5-8% men will develop one 4,7. However they are much more common in patients being investigated for infertility, with one study...

Young syndrome

Young syndrome shares similar clinical and radiological findings to primary ciliary dyskinesia and cystic fibrosis, however, the underlying pathogenesis is yet to be fully elucidated. Obstructive azoospermia at the level of the epididymis is thought to be the cause of infertility. The commonly r...

Urogenital curriculum

The urogenital curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core genitourinary knowledge. Definition Topics pertaining to the urinary tract (kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra), adrenal glands, prostate penis, scrotal content (testes, ...

Chronic primary adrenal insufficiency

Chronic primary adrenal insufficiency has a number of causes. Primary adrenal insufficiency is termed Addison disease. Pathology Causes idiopathic atrophy: autoimmune adrenalitis 1 tuberculosis 1: 25% calcify fungal disease 1 histioplasmosis blastomycosis coccidioidomycosis AIDS 1 sarc...

Metastases to testis

Metastases to testis are a very rare cause of a testicular mass and may be bilateral in up to 15% of patients. Epidemiology Metastases to the testes are apparent in ~0.04% of autopsy studies in patients with known malignancy. The average age is 57 years, much older than the primary age for pr...

Testicular cancer

Testicular cancers are the most common malignancy in men between the ages of 20 and 34 years. Epidemiology Testicular cancer is uncommon, accounting for less than 1% of all internal organ malignancies 2. The commonest histology of the tumor varies with the age of affected individuals. Over 90...

Microlithiasis (disambiguation)

Microlithiasis (rare plural: microlithiases) merely means very small stones and may refer to: alveolar microlithiasis biliary microlithiasis calyceal microlithiasis testicular microlithiasis

Testicular microlithiasis

Testicular microlithiasis is a relatively uncommon condition that represents the deposition of multiple tiny calcifications throughout both testes. The most common criterion for diagnosis is that of five microcalcifications in one testis, although definitions have varied in the past. In the ma...

Gleason score

The histological grading of prostate cancer has undergone many revisions, and for many years the primary system was the Gleason score, itself derived from the Gleason grade. In 2014, the Grade Group was introduced, and care must be taken to not confuse this with the Gleason grade. The Gleason g...

Whole-body CT (protocol)

CT polytrauma/multitrauma, also called trauma CT, whole body CT (WBCT) or panscan, is an increasingly used investigation in patients with multiple injuries sustained after significant trauma. The majority of the evidence regarding whole-body CT is, understandably, retrospective. There is some e...

Adrenal myelolipoma

Adrenal myelolipomas are rare, benign and usually asymptomatic tumors of the adrenal gland characterized by the predominance of mature adipocytes. On imaging, they usually present as large masses with a variable amount of fat-containing components. Epidemiology Myelolipomas are rare tumors o...

Renal arterial resistive index

The renal arterial resistive index (RI) is a sonographic index of intrarenal arteries defined as (peak systolic velocity - end-diastolic velocity) / peak systolic velocity. The normal range is 0.50-0.70. Elevated values are associated with poorer prognosis in various renal disorders and renal tr...

Pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytomas are an uncommon tumor of the adrenal gland, with characteristic clinical, and to a lesser degree, imaging features. The tumors are said to follow a 10% rule: ~10% are extra-adrenal ~10% are bilateral ~10% are malignant ~10% are found in children ~10% are not...

WHO histological classification of benign renal neoplasms

Benign renal tumors were histologically classified according to the World Health Organizatiοn 1. This is the subset of entities in the 2016 WHO classification of renal tumors that are associated with an International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) behavior code of 0, indicating...

Testicular cystic lesions

Testicular cystic lesions are a relatively common occurrence on testicular ultrasound. They result from widely variable pathological entities ranging from benign to malignant. These entities include: simple testicular cyst tunica albuginea cyst (mesothelial cyst) cystic transformation of rete...

Renal antibioma

Renal antibiomas are postinflammatory cystic fluid collections during or after antibiotic treatment for acute pyelonephritis. Radiographic features These are usually <3 cm sized, with no or minimal post contrast wall enhancement or thickening. Differential diagnosis renal abscess perinephri...

Perinephric abscess

A perinephric abscess may result due to rupture of a renal abscess into the perirenal space, but usually, it develops directly from acute pyelonephritis. However, any inflammatory process outside the Gerota's fascia may also result in a perinephric abscess. Perinephric abscesses are associated w...

HIV associated neoplasms

HIV-associated neoplasms are numerous and can be broadly divided into two groups: AIDS-defining malignancies associated but not AIDS defining malignancies AIDS-defining malignancies The development of these malignancies in HIV affected individuals generally implies progression to AIDS...

Multiple filling defects of the ureter (differential)

Multiple filling defects within a ureter, as seen on conventional IVU or CT IVU, have a relatively small differential including: spreading or multifocal transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) vascular indentations multiple ureteral stones (steinstrasse) blood clots ureteritis cystica Stevens-Jo...

Ureteritis cystica

Ureteritis cystica or pyeloureteritis cystica is a benign condition of the ureters representing multiple small submucosal cysts. Epidemiology Typically, this condition is seen in diabetics with recurrent urinary tract infections. As such, it is most frequently seen in older patients and is mo...

Neurocristopathy syndromes

Neurocristopathy syndromes encompasses a group of conditions united by abnormal migration, differentiation, division or survival of neural crest cells 1. Examples include: Waardenburg-Shah syndrome Haddad syndrome MEN IIa neurofibromatosis type I (NF1) Sturge-Weber syndrome Bamforth-Lazar...

Testicular epidermoid cyst

Testicular epidermoid cysts, also known as keratocysts, are rare benign tumors. Epidemiology Testicular epidermoid cysts account for around 1-2% of all testicular masses and typically present in mid-adulthood (2nd to 4th decades) 1,2. They are the most common type of benign testicular neoplasm...

Epidermoid cyst

Epidermoid cysts are non-neoplastic inclusion cysts derived from ectoderm that are lined solely by squamous epithelium. These are discussed separately by anatomic location: epidermal inclusion cyst intracranial epidermoid cyst splenic epidermoid cyst spinal epidermoid cyst te...

Neuroblastoma (staging)

There are two methods of neuroblastoma staging, one that is based on post-operative patients (INSS) and one developed for pre-treatment patients (INRGSS). Staging International Neuroblastoma Staging System (INSS) This staging system is for post-operative patients and mainly for prognosis 1: ...

Neuroblastoma vs Wilms tumor

Both neuroblastoma and Wilms tumor occur in early childhood and typically present as large abdominal masses closely related to the kidneys. Distinguishing between the two is important, and a number of features are helpful. Neuroblastoma calcification very common: 90% encases vascular structur...

Drash syndrome

Drash syndrome, also known as the Denys-Drash syndrome, is associated with an abnormal WT1 gene (Wilms tumor gene) and consists of: Wilms tumor male pseudohermaphroditism progressive glomerulonephritis

Wilms tumor

Wilms tumor, also known as nephroblastoma, is a malignant pediatric renal tumor. Epidemiology Wilms tumors are the most common pediatric renal mass, accounting for over 85% of cases 1,8 and account for 7% of all childhood cancers 12. They typically occur in early childhood (1-11 years) with pe...

Adrenal lesions (differential)

Adrenal lesions cover a broad spectrum from benign to neoplastic entities. Due to increased use of cross-sectional imaging they are frequently detected as incidental lesions (incidentalomas). If found incidentally, please refer to the Management of Incidental Adrenal Masses: American College of ...

WAGR syndrome

The WAGR syndrome or complex stands for: Wilms tumors (greatly increased risk) aniridia genitourinary anomalies intellectual retardation (disability) Pathology Genetics Occurs from a mutation related to chromosome 11p13 3 which is in close proximity to the WT1 gene.

Robson staging system of renal cell carcinoma

Robson staging of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is simple but has largely been replaced by the TNM system (see renal cell cancer staging article). Robson staging revolves around the relationship to Gerota's fascia, involvement of renal vein and regional nodes. stage I: limited to kidney stage II:...

Renal agenesis

Renal agenesis refers to a congenital absence of one or both kidneys. If bilateral (traditionally known as the classic Potter syndrome) the condition is fatal, whereas if unilateral, patients can have a normal life expectancy. Epidemiology Unilateral renal agenesis affects approximately 1 in ...

Renal cell carcinoma

Renal cell carcinomas (RCC) (historically also known as hypernephroma or Grawitz tumor) are primary malignant adenocarcinomas derived from the renal tubular epithelium and are the most common malignant renal tumor. They usually occur in 50-70-year old patients and macroscopic hematuria occurs in...

Asbestos-related diseases

Asbestos-related disease, in particular affecting the lung, comprise of a broad spectrum of entities related to the inhalational exposure to asbestos fibers. They can be divided into benign and malignant processes 1-3. Benign pleural and parenchymal lung disease asbestos-related benign pleural...

Scrotolith

Scrotoliths, also known as scrotal pearls, are benign incidental extratesticular macrocalcifications within the scrotum. They frequently occupy the potential space of the tunica vaginalis or sinus of the epididymis. They are usually of no clinical significance 1,2. Epidemiology The prevalence ...

Polyarteritis nodosa

Polyarteritis nodosa is a systemic inflammatory necrotizing vasculitis that involves small to medium-sized arteries (larger than arterioles). Epidemiology Polyarteritis nodosa is more common in males and typically presents around the 5th to 7th decades. 20-30% of patients are hepatitis B anti...

Paratesticular lesions

Paratesticular lesions have a long list of differential diagnoses: neoplastic benign epididymal cyst (most common epididymal mass) scrotal tunica cysts tunica vaginalis cyst tunica albuginea cyst spermatic cord lipoma scrotal hemangioma: is of...

N-acetylcysteine

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is often used as a prophylaxis against contrast-induced nephropathy. Protocols for administration vary widely from institution to institution and the true efficacy is still controversial. A typical protocol is 1,2: 600 mg acetylcysteine twice daily on the day of the exam...

Brachytherapy

Brachytherapy, also known as sealed source radiotherapy or endocurietherapy, is a form of radiotherapy where a radioactive source is placed, under the guidance of imaging, within or next to the area requiring treatment. This provides localized targeted internal radiation. Brachytherapy has been...

Pelvic congestion syndrome

Pelvic congestion syndrome (some prefer pelvic venous insufficiency 9) is a condition that results from retrograde flow through incompetent valves in ovarian veins. It is a commonly missed and potentially-treatable cause of chronic abdominopelvic pain. Epidemiology It tends to be more common ...

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder (staging)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder staging uses the TNM system which has replaced the previously widely used Jewett-Strong-Marshall tumor staging system. It is very similar to the staging of TCC of the renal pelvis and staging of TCC of the ureter. TNM staging (8th edition) T Ta: non-...

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD), also referred as post-transplant lymphoproliferation disorder, represents a variety of conditions ranging from lymphoid hyperplasia to malignancy, included in the WHO classification of haematolymphoid tumors under "lymphoid proliferations and ...

Colovesical fistula

Colovesical fistulas are communications between the lumen of the colon and that of the bladder, either directly or via an intervening abscess cavity (foyer intermediaire). When the communication is between the rectum and urinary bladder, the term rectovesical fistula is used. Epidemiology The ...

Wolffian duct

The Wolffian duct (also known as the mesonephric duct) is one of the paired embryogenic tubules that drain the primitive kidney (mesonephros) to the cloaca. It also gives off a lateral branch forming the ureteric bud. In both the male and the female, the Wolffian duct develops into the trigone o...

Septate uterus

A septate uterus is the most common type of congenital uterine anomaly, and may lead to an increased rate of pregnancy loss. The main imaging differential diagnoses are arcuate uterus and bicornuate uterus. Epidemiology It is considered the most common uterine anomaly (accounts for ~55% of suc...

Cyst

A cyst is an abnormal fluid-filled structure which is lined by epithelium; with one exception: lung cysts may contain gas or fluid. By contradistinction, a pseudocyst lacks an epithelial lining and instead has a vascular and fibrotic capsule. Cysts are extremely common and found in most organs....

Diverticulum

Diverticula are outpouchings of a hollow viscus and can be either true or false. Occasionally a diverticulum is used in a more general sense to mean the outpouching of other anatomical structures, e.g. frontal intersinus septal cells are hypothesized to form as diverticula from the frontal sinu...

Abscess

Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1: a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue peripheral halo of viable neutrophils surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood...

Tuberous sclerosis (diagnostic criteria)

The tuberous sclerosis diagnostic criteria have been developed to aid the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis and have been updated in 2012 by the International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group (at time of writing - 2019) 1. Criteria Genetic criteria The identification of either a TSC1...

Calyceal crescent sign (intravenous pyelogram)

The calyceal crescent sign (of Dunbar and Nogrady) refers to the early intravenous pyelogram (IVP) appearance of markedly dilated renal calyces. It is formed by early contrast opacification of the dilated collecting ducts and ducts of Bellini with the characteristic shape as a result of the asso...

Congenital megacalyces

Congenital megacalyces is an incidental finding which mimics hydronephrosis. It is a result of underdevelopment of the renal medullary pyramids with resultant enlargement of the calyces. It is more frequently seen in males. The enlarged calyces predispose to stasis, infection and calculus forma...

McCune-Albright syndrome

McCune-Albright syndrome (MAS) (also known as McCune-Albright-Sternberg syndrome) is a genetic disorder characterized by the association of: endocrinopathy: precocious puberty polyostotic fibrous dysplasia: more severe than in sporadic cases cutaneous pigmentation: coast of Maine 'café au lai...

Iron deficiency anemia

Iron deficiency anemia is a common cause of anemia and a common precipitant to radiological investigation. Epidemiology Amongst men and postmenopausal women, the incidence in the developed world is around 2%. Among premenopausal women, the incidence is greater and in most cases, investigation ...

Epididymal calcification

Epididymal calcification can be seen on ultrasound as hyperechoic foci within the epididymal head. If the calcifications are large enough, then they may demonstrate acoustic shadowing. Differential diagnosis chronic epididymitis, e.g. bacterial, granulomatous (TB) or genital filariasis traum...

Ureteric rupture

Ureteric rupture is rare but has been described. It may be spontaneous or secondary to another pathology or intervention. Clinical presentation The most common symptoms are sudden, severe, persistent lower abdominal pain with severe peritoneal irritation. Abdominal compartment syndrome, respir...

Persistent fetal lobulation of the kidneys

Persistent fetal lobulation is a normal variant seen occasionally in adult kidneys. It occurs when there is incomplete fusion of the developing renal lobules. Embryologically, the kidneys originate as distinct lobules that fuse as they develop and grow. Radiographic features It is often seen o...

Renal abscess

Renal abscess is a collection of infective fluid in the kidney. It is usually a sequela of acute pyelonephritis, where severe vasospasm and inflammation may occasionally result in liquefactive necrosis and abscess formation. Epidemiology It can affect all ages and has no recognized gender pred...

Urolithiasis

Urolithiasis refers to the presence of calculi anywhere along the course of the urinary tracts. For the purpose of the article, the terms urolithiasis, nephrolithiasis, and renal/kidney stones are used interchangeably, although some authors have slightly varying definitions of each. See main a...

Posterior pararenal space

The posterior pararenal space is the smallest and most clinically insignificant portion of the retroperitoneum. Gross anatomy It is filled with fat, blood vessels, and lymphatics, but contains no major organs. Boundaries posteriorly: bound by transversalis fascia anteriorly: bound by poster...

Perirenal space

The perirenal space is the largest of the three divisions of the retroperitoneum and is the most easily identified. It contains the kidneys, renal vessels, proximal collecting systems, adrenal glands and an adequate amount of fat to allow identification on CT scanning. It also contains the perin...

Anterior pararenal space

The anterior pararenal space is the portion of the retroperitoneum that lies between the posterior surface of the parietal peritoneum and the anterior reflection of the perirenal fascia. Gross anatomy It contains the retroperitoneal portion of the duodenum (distal D1 to D3), the pancreas and r...

Renal fascia

The renal fascia is a dense, elastic connective tissue sheath that envelops each kidney and adrenal gland together with a layer of surrounding perirenal fat forming the perirenal space. It is a multi-laminated structure which is fused posteromedially with the muscular fasciae of the psoas and q...

Extraprostatic extension of prostate cancer

Extraprostatic (extracapsular) extension of prostate cancer refers to local tumor growth beyond the fibromuscular pseudocapsule of the prostate gland into the periprostatic soft tissues, in particular, the periprostatic fat and is an established adverse prognostic factor and of importance for pr...

MR spectroscopy in prostate cancer

MR spectroscopy is a promising development in the radiological evaluation of possible prostate malignancy. The MR spectroscopic evaluation is mainly based on the choline peak elevation and choline-creatinine ratios. Choline/creatine to citrate ratios: > 0.5: suspicious > 0.8: very suspiciou...

Prostate peripheral zone T2 hypointensity

Prostate peripheral zone T2 hypointensity is a common finding in pelvic MRIs that needs to be evaluated. A prostate MRI is usually performed with a multiparametric technique (mpMRI) to differentiate prostate cancer from more benign pathologies. mpMRI includes T2 weighted images, dynamic contrast...

Renal sinus cyst

Renal sinus cysts are simple renal cysts that lie within the renal sinus. Terminology It is worth noting that some authors 5,6 use the term renal lymphangiectasia interchangeably. It is likely that true renal lymphangiectasia is a separate and rare disorder, and is thus discussed separately. ...

Adrenal calcification

Adrenal calcification is not a rare finding in healthy asymptomatic people and is usually the result of previous hemorrhage or tuberculosis. Addison disease patients only occasionally develop calcification. Pathology Etiology Hemorrhage sepsis: Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome blunt abdomi...

Chromaffin cells

Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found predominantly in the medulla of the adrenal gland. They are also found in other ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system and are derived from the embryonic neural crest. Embryology They arise in the fifth week of fetal development when neuroblas...

Melioidosis

Melioidosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei (previously known as Pseudomonas pseudomallei) and is a multisystem disorder which may affect the lungs, brain, visceral organs, or musculoskeletal system. Epidemiology Melioidosis is a disease of the monsoo...

Pelvic peritoneal space

The pelvic peritoneal space is the inferior reflection of the peritoneum over the fundus of the urinary bladder and the front of the rectum at the junction of its middle and lower thirds. In females, the reflection is also over the anterior and posterior surface of the uterus and the upper poste...

Duplex collecting system

A duplex collecting system, or duplicated collecting system, is one of the most common congenital renal tract abnormalities. It is characterized by an incomplete fusion of upper and lower pole moieties resulting in a variety of complete or incomplete duplications of the collecting system. While ...

Liddle syndrome

Liddle's syndrome is an autosomal dominant condition which inhibits the normal degradation of the ENaC sodium channel, resulting in findings that mimic Conn's syndrome (hyperaldosteronism); hypernatremia, hypokalemia and elevated serum bicarbonate. Typically patients are asymptomatic other than ...

Bartter syndrome

Bartter syndrome is a rare inherited renal disorder. Pathology Bartter syndrome is characterized by hyperplasia of the juxtaglomerular cells along with: hypokalemia metabolic alkalosis hypotension/normotension elevated plasma renin elevated aldosterone antenatal polyhydramnios Classific...

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are substances known to cause cancer. They include: Brain vinyl chloride Nasopharynx / nasal cavity nickel wood dust chromium Thyroid ionizing radiation Skin arsenic coal tars polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Lungs arsenic asbestos chloromethyl ethers chromium coke-o...

Renal vascular pedicle injury

Renal vascular pedicle injury is a severe form of renal trauma, which if not recognized and treated expediently, can lead to the loss of the kidney. Radiographic features CT Contrast enhanced CT is the Imaging modality of choice. On CT it is recognized as a non-enhancing kidney. Perirenal h...

Adult cystic renal disease

Adult cystic renal disease comprises multiple distinct hereditary and non-hereditary disease processes. Pathology Etiology Hereditary adult polycystic kidney disease (APCKD), a.k.a. autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPCKD) medullary cystic kidney disease von Hippel-Lindau dis...

Pediatric cystic renal diseases

The pediatric cystic renal diseases are a heterogeneous group of conditions defined by the presence of kidney cysts due to hereditary or non-hereditary causes: isolated simple cyst cystic renal dysplasia multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK) obstructive cystic renal dysplasia genetic disorde...

Medullary cystic disease complex

Medullary cystic disease complex belongs to group of pediatric cystic renal diseases characterized by progressive tubular atrophy with glomerulosclerosis (chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis) and multiple small medullary cysts. Epidemiology There is no recognized gender predilection. Clinic...

Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease

Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is one of many pediatric cystic renal diseases. On imaging, it usually presents on ultrasound with enlarged echogenic kidneys with multiple small cysts. Liver involvement with coarse echotexture, biliary tract cystic changes, and portal hype...

Cystic nephroma

Cystic nephromas, previously known as multilocular cystic nephromas, are rare benign renal neoplasms classically occurring in adult females in the 4th and 5th decades. As of the 2016 WHO classification, they are considered distinct from pediatric cystic nephromas which have associated DICER1 gen...

Renal cell carcinoma (TNM staging)

The TNM system may be used for staging of renal cell carcinoma. An older but still widely used system for staging of renal cell carcinoma in some practices is the Robson staging system. TNM staging (8th edition) T Tx: tumor cannot be assessed T0: tumor not seen T1 T1a: tumor confined to ki...

Extratesticular cystic lesions (differential)

The differential diagnosis for extratesticular cystic lesions includes: hydrocele epididymal cyst spermatocele hematoma hematocele loop of bowel from an inguinal hernia abscess pyocele post-vasectomy varicocele Very rarely, a scrotal mesothelioma may present as ...

Bilateral testicular lesions

Bilateral testicular lesions have a relatively limited differential diagnosis. Differential diagnosis Neoplastic lymphoblastic leukemia (acute or chronic) lymphoma (non-Hodgkin's) primary testicular lymphoma is rare but the testes are often the site of lymphoma/leukemia recurrence ...

Unilateral testicular lesions

The differential diagnosis for unilateral testicular lesions is wide-ranging. Neoplastic Common seminoma (40-50% of testicular malignancies) non-seminomatous germ cell tumors: testicular teratoma testicular epidermoid (teratoma with ectodermal elements only) testicular choriocarcinoma t...

Varicocele embolization

Varicocele embolization is a minimally invasive method of treating varicoceles by embolizing the testicular vein (internal spermatic veins). Indications symptomatic varicocele infertility/subfertility failed surgical ligation Contraindications Relative contraindications include: intraveno...

Varicocele

Varicocele is the dilatation of the pampiniform plexus of veins, a network of many small veins found in the male spermatic cord. It is the most frequently encountered mass of the spermatic cord. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~15% of the general male population and ~40% of subferti...

Salt and pepper sign (disambiguation)

The salt and pepper sign is used to refer to a speckled appearance of tissue on imaging. It is used in many contexts, but most commonly for the appearance of certain lesions on MRI, especially paragangliomas. salt and pepper noise (MRI artifact) 9 salt and pepper sign (ARPCKD) 8 salt and pepp...

Growing teratoma syndrome

Growing teratoma syndrome is a rare complication after treatment for metastatic (or in the case of intracranial disease, primary) non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT). It was first described in the pediatric population with treated germ cell neoplasms, and represents enlarging masses at th...

Renal osteodystrophy

Renal osteodystrophy, also known as uremic osteopathy, is a constellation of musculoskeletal abnormalities that occur in patients with chronic renal failure, due to concurrent and superimposed: osteomalacia (adults) / rickets (children) secondary hyperparathyroidism: abnormal calcium and phosp...

Page kidney

Page kidney, or Page phenomenon, refers to systemic hypertension secondary to extrinsic compression of the kidney by a subcapsular collection, e.g. hematoma, seroma, or urinoma. Clinical presentation Patients present with hypertension, which may be recognized acutely after an inciting event or...

Hyperreninaemic hypertension (differential)

Hyperreninaemic hypertension may have many causes including: renal artery stenosis renal secreting tumor, e.g. renal cell carcinoma, reninoma renal compression: large renal mass, subcapsular hemorrhage (Page kidney)

Renal artery stenosis

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) (plural: stenoses) refers to a narrowing of a renal artery. When the process occurs slowly, it leads to secondary hypertension. Acute renal artery stenosis does not lead to hypersecretion of renin. Pathology When the stenosis occurs slowly, collateral vessels form a...

Fibromuscular dysplasia

Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a heterogeneous group of vascular lesions characterized by an idiopathic, non-inflammatory, and non-atherosclerotic angiopathy of small and medium-sized arteries. Epidemiology The prevalence is unknown 7. It is most common in young women with a female to male r...

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