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Bosniak classification of cystic renal masses (version 2019)

The Bosniak classification of cystic renal masses (version 2019), or usually simply Bosniak classification, version 2019, is a proposed update of the classic/current Bosniak criteria. The update hopes to improve the classification's predictive power for malignancy and minimize the number of beni...

Urethral glands of Littré

The urethral glands of Littré, often shortened to just the glands of Littré, and also known as the glands of Morgagni or intramural glands of the urethra (TA: glandulae urethrales masculinae), are small glands located in the mucosa of the anterior male urethra which secrete mucus. Terminology ...

Uvula (disambiguation)

The uvula (plural: uvulae or uvulas) may refer to several different anatomical structures. When used as a standalone term it is usually understood to refer to the soft palate uvula. uvula (soft palate) uvula (cerebellum) uvula (male bladder) History and etymology Uvula is Latin for 'little ...

Granulomatous epididymitis

Granulomatous epididymitis refers to a form of epididymitis secondary to a granulomatous process. It may or may not be associated with concurrent orchitis. It is usually associated with: tuberculosis - tuberculous epididymitis bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine Occasionally cases are idi...

Buried penis

A buried penis is a condition in which a normal sized penis is entrapped partially or completely by the surrounding subcutaneous fat and soft tissues of the scrotum, thighs, or hypogastrium. Pathology Etiology Congenital congenital poor fixation of the penile skin at its base 3 Acquired ob...

Prostate MRI (an approach)

Prostate MRI has become an increasingly frequent examination faced in daily radiological practice and is mainly conducted for the detection, active surveillance and staging of prostate cancer. This approach is an example of how to create a radiological report of a prostate MRI (usually mpMRI) wi...

Perineal body

The perineal body, also known as the central tendon of the perineum, (TA: corpus perineale) is a key midline fibromuscular structure, with important muscular attachments, which acts to stabilize the structures of the pelvis and perineum. It is located between the anal canal and the vagina, or in...

Transverse perineal muscles

The transverse perineal muscles are important for the stability of the pelvic and perineal structures via their intimate relationship with the perineal body. For many years, it was thought that these muscles directly inserted into the perineal body. It is now known that fibers from the muscles o...

Deep transverse perineal muscle

The paired deep transverse perineal muscles (TA: musculus transversus profundus perinei) lie in the perineum and are important for stabilizing the perineal body. Summary origin: ischial ramus insertion: the fibers of each muscle meet in the midline at the perineal body and decussate to intert...

Superficial transverse perineal muscle

The paired superficial transverse perineal muscles (TA: musculus transversus superficialis perinei) lie in the perineum and are important for stabilizing the perineal body. Summary origin: ischial tuberosity insertion: the fibers of each muscle meet in the midline at the perineal body and dec...

Cellular angiofibroma

Cellular angiofibromas are benign densely vascularized fibroblastic neoplasms usually found in the lower genital tract specifically the vulva, vagina or perineum in women and the scrotum or groin in men. Epidemiology Cellular angiofibromas are rare tumors found in the adult population. There i...

Seminal vesicle invasion

Seminal vesicle invasion (SVI) is referred to as the secondary involvement of the seminal vesicles and ductus deferens by neoplasms not originating from the seminal vesicles themselves and are much more common than their primary counterparts. Involvement of the seminal vesicles stages prostate c...

Seminal vesicle fusion

Seminal vesicle fusion is a congenital abnormality that refers to the midline fusion of the seminal vesicles. Epidemiology This is a very rare anomaly that has been reported in some sporadic case series and case reports in infertile men 2. Radiographic features Ultrasound Only one case desc...

Ejaculatory duct obstruction

Ejaculatory duct obstruction refers to the congenital or acquired obstruction of the ejaculatory ducts. Epidemiology Ejaculatory duct obstruction is rare, accounting for approximately 5% of infertile patients, but thought to be underdiagnosed 2. Clinical presentation Patients may complain ab...

Seminal vesicle hypoplasia

Seminal vesicle hypoplasia is a congenital anomaly that refers to the underdevelopment of one or both seminal vesicles. Epidemiology Associations All mesonephric duct maldevelopments may be observed: renal agenesis seminal vesicle agenesis seminal vesicle cysts congenital agenesis of the ...

WHO classification of prostate tumors

The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of prostate tumors is a commonly used classification system for prostate tumors. The current version was published in 2016 as part of the WHO Classification of Tumors of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs 1,2 and replaces the previous c...

Stromal tumor of uncertain malignant potential

Stromal tumor of uncertain malignant potential (STUMP) is a rare stromal tumor of the prostate with a broad spectrum of histologic patterns and variable clinical behavior. Terminology Stromal tumor of uncertain malignant potential has been also known as atypical stromal hyperplasia, cystic epi...

Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the prostate

Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the prostate is a rare malignant prostatic tumor variant usually composed of both malignant glandular cells and spindle cells. Terminology Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the prostate is also known as carcinosarcoma, metaplastic carcinoma or spindle cell carcinoma of the pros...

Leiomyosarcoma of the prostate

Leiomyosarcoma of the prostate is a rare mesenchymal smooth muscle malignancy of the prostate gland. Epidemiology It is a rare tumor with less than 200 cases reported in the literature accounting for approximately 25% of all sarcomas of the prostate gland and less than 0.1% of primary prostate...

Cystic dilatation of the seminal vesicles

Cystic dilatation of the seminal vesicles refers to dilatation to one or both seminal vesicles often occurring as a result of a downstream obstruction (atresia of the ejaculatory ducts or ectopic ureteral insertion into the seminal vesicles). On imaging it is seen as continuous dilatation to one...

Seminal vesicle agenesis

Seminal vesicle agenesis is a condition that refers to the congenital absence of one or both seminal vesicles. Epidemiology Seminal vesicle agenesis is a rare finding with a reported incidence of 0.08 % 2. Associations Developmental anomalies of the ipsilateral urogenital tract may be observ...

Watchful waiting

Watchful waiting, also known as watch and wait, describes a palliative management option with the main goal to maintain/improve quality of life, to control complications as well as minimize adverse treatment-related effects. Usage Watchful waiting is usually considered in elderly patients with...

Active surveillance

Active surveillance describes a management option aiming at close monitoring of a specific stage in disease and minimizing adverse treatment-related effects without compromising survival at the same time. Curative or definite treatment is intended and offered upon deterioration or explicit patie...

Ureteral calcification

Ureteral calcification refers to the presence of calcium concretions within the ureteral lumen or wall. Common ureteric calculi Uncommon neoplastic 3 transitional cell carcinoma hemangioma papilloma infections tuberculosis 1 schistosomiasis of the urinary tract iatrogenic radiation u...

Thrombosis of the pampiniform plexus

Thrombosis of the pampiniform plexus is a rarely reported phenomenon of the formation of thrombus within the pampiniform plexus of the testes. It may occur with or without a varicocele. Its exact etiology is not well known but has sometimes been seen following epididymo-orchitis 1. Spontaneous o...

Horseshoe-shaped (disambiguation)

Several normal anatomical structures and rare organ variants have been described as being horseshoe-shaped. Organ anomalies horseshoe kidney horseshoe lung horseshoe adrenal horseshoe appendix horseshoe pancreas 1 Horseshoe-shaped organs hyoid bone limbic lobe supramarginal gyrus tymp...

Cystic renal tumors

Cystic renal neoplasms comprise of a heterogeneous group of renal tumors. They can have variable biological profiles. They may be purely cystic or could be cystic with solid components, and they may be benign or malignant. Benign renal lymphangioma cystic nephroma mixed epithelial and stroma...

PSA velocity

The PSA velocity (PSAV) is a statistically-derived measure of how the prostate specific antigen (PSA) changes over time, and has been used as a marker of how prostate malignancy progresses or regresses. Any cancer grows over time and relative changes of tumor markers, such as PSA, would seem t...

Percutaenous renal tumor ablation

Percutaneous ablation in the kidney is now performed as a standard therapeutic nephron-sparing option in patients who are poor candidates for resection. It is performed via radiofrequency ablation or cryoablation. Follow-up time frame Can vary according to center but usually includes contrast-...

Intrapelvic cup migration

Intrapelvic cup migration is a serious complication after total hip arthroplasty, in which the prosthetic acetabular cup migrates or drifts into the pelvic inlet. Epidemiology Fortunately, this complication is very rare. There seems to be a female predisposition 1-3. Risk factors Factors inc...

Male infertility

Male infertility is the inability to conceive due to factors in the male partner. Epidemiology Precise numbers vary but generally, male factor is estimated to play a role in up to half of infertility cases 3. Pathology Causes of male infertility can be considered as: pre-testicular, e.g. h...

Autonephrectomy

Autonephrectomy refers to the end stage of renal tuberculosis where chronic tuberculous infection causes caseous necrosis and progressive renal cavitation, rendering the kidney non-functioning 1. Epidemiology It is a rare occurrence in non-endemic populations today but can be misdiagnosed if n...

Saddlebag bladder sign (endopelvic fascial defect)

The saddlebag bladder sign refers to the appearance caused on axial pelvic MR images by posterior drooping of the posterolateral wall(s) of the urinary bladder, due to loss of integrity of the lateral level 2 endopelvic fascia. If combined with a defect of the puborectalis muscle on the ipsilate...

Drooping moustache sign (endopelvic fascial defect)

The drooping moustache sign refers to the appearance caused on axial pelvic MR images by posterior prolapse of the fat in the retropubic space, akin to the drooping corners of a moustache, due to loss of integrity of the urethral suspensory ligaments and level 3 endopelvic fascia.

Urothelial carcinoma with squamous differentiation

Urothelial carcinoma with squamous differentiation (UCSD) is a variation of urothelial cell carcinoma which is associated with advanced tumor stage. When occurring in relation to bladder cancer, around 60-70% of the cases occur in those with muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) 1. Treatment an...

Endopelvic fascia

The endopelvic fascia is the enveloping connective tissue network for the pelvic viscera, suspending, supporting and fusing the pelvic organs to the arcus tendineus fasciae pelvis, which itself inserts onto the pelvic sidewalls and pubic bones. The major anterior component is the pubovesical li...

H and M lines (pelvic floor)

The H and M lines are reference lines for the pelvic floor on imaging studies and help detect and grade pelvic floor prolapse on defecography studies. The H line is drawn from the inferior margin of the pubic symphysis to the posterior aspect of the anorectal junction, and represents the diamet...

Waist sign hydrosalpinx

The waist sign arises from the folding of a distended tube upon itself producing indentations on diametrically opposite sides. The waist sign is specific for hydrosalpinx and virtually pathognomonic when seen in association with a tubular-shaped cystic mass. See also cogwheel sign beads on a ...

Vulval varices

Vulvar varices are dilated superficial veins of the external female genitalia, which are primarily seen during pregnancy and usually resolve spontaneously postpartum. Epidemiology Vulvar varicosities are seen in up to 4% of pregnant females in the vulvar and perivulvar region, and rarely seen ...

Emphysema (disambiguation)

Emphysema refers to any disease process involving an abnormal accumulation of air/gas in the tissues. When used alone, it is usually taken to mean the lung disease, pulmonary emphysema, which forms part of the spectrum of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). gastric emphysema: include...

Perinephric myxoid pseudotumor of fat

Perinephric myxoid pseudotumor of fat is a very rare, benign, slowly growing tumor, which can mimic renal cysts, retroperitoneal cystic tumors and liposarcomas alike. Due to its rarity and overlapping imaging appearance the diagnosis is almost always made by histopathological analysis 1,2. Eti...

Post renal transplant fluid collections (mnemonic)

Following renal transplant, different perinephric fluid collections tend to present at different times in the postoperative period. These can be remembered in order using the mnemonic: HEAL Mnemonic H: hematoma (immediate) E: encapsulated urine collections/urinomas (1-2 weeks) A: abscess (3...

Solitary filling defect in ureters (mnemonic)

Solitary filling defect with a ureter, as seen on conventional IVU or CT IVU has a few differentials which can be remembered using this mnemonic: CUPS MET Mnemonic C: clot U: ureteric stone P: polyp S: sloughed papilla M: metastasis E: endometriosis T: tuberculosis, transitional cell...

Multiple filling defects of ureter (mnemonic)

Multiple filling defects within a ureter, as seen on conventional IVU or CT IVU, have a relatively small differential which can be learned using this mnemonic: CUT SLIM Mnemonic C: clots U: ureteritis cystica T: transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) S: stones, Stevens-Johnson syndrome L: l...

Hydronephrosis (mnemonic)

The causative factors leading to hydronephrosis can be recalled using this mnemonic: RUNS Mnemonic R: retroperitoneal fibrosis U: urolithiasis N: neoplastic mass (cervical cancer) S: stenosis of pelvi-ureteric junction

Acute renal transplant rejection

Acute renal transplant rejection is a renal transplant complication that occurs within <5-7 days of the placement of the transplant. Although part of a spectrum of closely-related rejection disorders, the term is meant to distinguish this type of rejection from chronic renal transplant rejection...

Abdomen (KUB view)

The kidneys, ureters, bladder (KUB) radiograph is optimized for assessment of the urogenital system, and should not be confused with the AP supine abdomen view. However, in cases where the patient may have both gastrointestinal and urogenital abnormalities, all pathologies will still be reported...

Intravesical prostatic protrusion

Intravesical prostatic protrusion is an anatomical feature that may be present in some patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) being characterized by the enlargement of the prostate towards the floor of the bladder 1,2. Clinical Presentation Intravesical prostatic protrusion is correl...

Epididymal leiomyoma

Epididymal leiomyomas (fibrous pseudotumors) are uncommon smooth muscle tumors that do not have malignant potential. Their imaging features are not specific and, if small, it may be a difficult prospective diagnosis on imaging. They are usually encountered in a differential for epididymal/parate...

Chronic epididymitis

Chronic epididymitis is a clinical diagnosis based on chronic epididymal pain lasting for at least six weeks 8. It is a common, possibly the most common, cause of scrotal pain. Epidemiology One study found the median age at presentation is 46-49 years with an average duration of symptoms prio...

Chromophobe renal cell carcinoma

Chromophobe renal cell carcinoma is one of the less common subtypes of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Epidemiology This is the least common major subtype of RCC, occurring 5% of the time 1. Similar incidence in men and women. There is an association with Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome 4. Pathology Thi...

Persistent nephrogram

Persistent nephrograms occur when intravenous contrast media is retained by both kidneys for more than 3 minutes. Terminology Persistent nephrograms are characteristically bilateral and are usually distinguished from delayed nephrograms, which occur unilaterally. Pathology Etiology systemi...

Inverted papilloma of the urinary tract

Inverted papillomas of the urinary tract are rare, benign tumors that most commonly occur at the bladder neck or trigone and are characterized by an inverted growth pattern on histology 1.

Abdominal tuberculosis

Abdominal tuberculosis can manifest in almost every abdominopelvic organ: gastrointestinal tuberculosis esophageal tuberculosis gastric tuberculosis duodenal tuberculosis jejunal and ileal tuberculosis ileocecal tuberculosis colorectal tuberculosis tuberculous peritonitis tubercular lym...

Renal transplant torsion

Renal transplant torsion is a very rare complication of renal transplant, occurring mostly in intraperitoneal transplants because of the increased mobility compared to extraperitoneal transplants, which are less mobile. Clinical presentation Non-specific clinical symptoms such as nausea, abdo...

Renal allograft compartment syndrome

Renal allograft compartment syndrome is an uncommon and potentially underdiagnosed condition of early renal transplant dysfunction. It occurs mostly in transplants placed in the extraperitoneal space. Pathology The most common placement for a renal transplant has been in the extraperitoneal/r...

Prostate-seminal vesicle angle

The prostate-seminal vesicle angle (also known as the prostatoseminal angle 1) refers to the acute angle posterolaterally between the prostate gland and respective seminal vesicle on each side. The angle is visible due to the periprostatic fat lying between the two structures. The angle is appre...

Peritesticular lipoma

Peritesticular lipoma is considered the most common benign tumor of the paratesticular tissues and spermatic cord (can comprising around 45% of paratesticular masses). Clinical presentation Often manifests as an incidentally discovered nontender scrotal mass. Can affect patients over a wide ag...

Keyhole sign (disambiguation)

The keyhole sign may refer to: keyhole sign (intracapsular breast implant rupture) 1 keyhole sign (posterior urethral valves) 2 keyhole sign (neural exit foramina)

Pubococcygeal line

The pubococcygeal line (PCL) is a reference line for the pelvic floor on imaging studies and helps detect and grade pelvic floor prolapse in defecography studies. It is defined as a line that connects the inferior border of the symphysis pubis (anterior margin) to the final coccygeal joint (post...

Contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography

Contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (occasionally abbreviated as ce-VUS) is a relatively novel contrast-enhanced ultrasonographic technique utilizing microbubbles to detect vesicoureteral reflux. Indications Suspected or confirmed vesicoureteral reflux is currently the primary indication ...

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is a rare X-linked genetic disease caused by a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT). Epidemiology Affects 1 per 380,000 individuals, which are nearly all male given the X-linked inheritance 1. Clinical presentation hyperuricemia-...

Adrenal congestion

Adrenal congestion is considered to possibly precede non-traumatic adrenal hemorrhage 1, and refers to adrenal gland thickening and peri-adrenal fat stranding on imaging, which are nonspecific findings. However, more research is needed to elucidate this entity. A possible explanation for adrena...

Cystic partially differentiated nephroblastoma

Cystic partially differentiated nephroblastomas (CPDN) are rare pediatric cystic renal tumors. They are distinct from pediatric cystic nephromas although they have very similar imaging appearances. Terminology Evolving terminology regarding cystic nephromas and other cystic renal tumors reflec...

Total pelvic exenteration

Total pelvic exenteration refers to extensive surgical resection of pelvic structures to treat locally advanced or recurrent pelvic malignancies. It is performed to obtain optimal excision of tumor radical margins which can be difficult in pelvis given proximity and often local invasion of adjac...

Corpora amylacea

The corpora amylacea ("bodies of starch") are a histologic finding, encountered more frequently in the brain, prostate, lung, and uterus. The corpora amylacea are thought to be sulfated glycosaminoglycans 1. Some have described it as a localized amyloidosis 2. In the prostate they appear to ar...

Abnormal testicular Doppler flow (differential)

Abnormal testicular Doppler flow (arterial, venous, or both) can be a differential challenge. Always remember that the patient's presenting history helps quite a bit in narrowing the differential. Reduced flow partial testicular torsion (<360 degrees) venous outflow is obstructed first, resul...

Filling defect

A filling defect is a general term used to refer to any abnormality on an imaging study which disrupts the normal opacification (filling) of a cavity or lumen. The opacification maybe physiological, for example, bile in the gallbladder or blood in a dural venous sinus, or maybe due to the instal...

Vesical Imaging-Reporting and Data System (VI-RADS)

The Vesical Imaging–Reporting and Data System (VI-RADS) is a structured reporting scheme for multiparametric bladder MRI in the evaluation of suspected bladder cancer. A systematic approach to bladder lesion based on multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) was proposed by the European Association of Urology...

Angiotensin converting enzyme

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is a central component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) which assists in blood pressure control by regulating the volume of fluids in the body. Normal individuals may have a small volume of the angiotensin converting enzyme circulating in their blood. M...

Androgen deprivation therapy

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), also called androgen suppression therapy or is a form of treatment in prostate cancer, which basically aims to slow prostate cancer growth by blocking the effect of androgens e.g. testosterone. Such therapy is mainly used for treating men with intermediate- a...

Frozen pelvis

Frozen pelvis refers to a condition in which pelvic organs are distorted and tethered to each other as a consequence of adhesive processes. It is commonly seen in endometriosis. Other causes include tumors, infections including pelvic inflammatory disease, post-surgical adhesions and post-treat...

Watering-can perineum

Watering-can perineum is the result of multiple fistulae extending from the urethra to open within the perineum. In these patients, urine can exit through these perineal openings 1,2. The fistulae can be detected with voiding cystourethrography, however, the definite cause can be determined with...

Molar tooth sign (disambiguation)

The molar tooth sign may refer to: molar tooth sign (CNS) molar tooth sign (abdomen)

Whirlpool sign (testicular torsion)

The whirlpool sign of the spermatic cord is a direct sign of testicular torsion, both complete and incomplete (i.e. <360°). It is considered to be the most specific and sensitive sign for testicular torsion. Terminology The term whirlpool sign is used in other contexts: see whirlpool sign (dis...

Crus (disambiguation)

A crus (plural: crura) is an anatomical term used for a structure which resembles a leg. crus (auricle) crus (cerebrum) crus (clitoris) crus (diaphragm) crus (fornix) crus (heart) crus (incus) crus (internal capsule) crus (nose) crus (penis) crus (semicircular duct) crus (stapes) cr...

Bulbs of the vestibule

The bulbs of the vestibule (also known as the vestibular, vestibulovaginal or clitoral bulbs) are conglomerations of erectile soft tissue, collectively homologous to the bulb of the penis. However unlike in the male, the developing bulb is bisected by the vaginal opening to form two halves. The...

Vaginal opening

The vaginal opening, is also known as the introitus (plural: introituses), vaginal orifice, or ostium vaginae (plural: ostia vaginarum) (TA) . Gross anatomy The entrance to the vagina lies in the vestibule of the vulva in the median plane. It has an anteroposterior orientation and is partially...

Inguinal lymph nodes

The inguinal lymph nodes (often shortened to the inguinal nodes) are a major group of lymph nodes in the lymphatic system. They are the major drainage pathway of the lower limbs, genitals, dorsal perineum and the inferior most aspect of the anterior abdominal wall. Inguinal lymph nodes larger th...

Reverse rim sign (kidney)

The reverse rim sign describes relative hypoenhancement of the renal cortex and normal enhancement of the renal medulla on contrast-enhanced CT and MRI. This enhancement pattern can also be visualized using CEUS 2. It is a typical finding of renal cortical necrosis that may occur in the setting...

Prostate MRI protocol

Prostate MRI has become an increasingly frequent examination faced in daily radiological practice and is usually acquired as either multiparametric or biparametric MRI of the prostate. This article aims to outline the concept of an MRI protocol for the assessment of the prostate. Recommendatio...

MRI targeted prostate biopsy

MRI targeted prostate biopsy refers to an imaging targeted technique rather than the traditional systematic approach of a prostate biopsy after respective imaging with multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the prostate. As a consequence of the recent advances of multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the pros...

Extra-adrenal myelolipoma

Extra-adrenal myelolipomas are extremely rare myelolipomas that occur outside the adrenal glands, with the most common sites being the retroperitoneum (especially presacral region 7), perirenal space and the thorax. Epidemiology The exact incidence is unknown. Less than 60 reported cases were ...

Falling snow sign (spermatocele)

The falling snow sign describes the appearance of movement of internal echoes in spermatoceles away from the transducer, resulting in an appearance similar to falling snow when color Doppler is applied. The sign can be used to aid in the diagnosis of a spermatocele.

Dancing megasperm

Dancing megasperm is the ultrasound finding of continuously oscillating/mobile tiny echogenic foci within dilated tubules of the epididymis. This is seen in post-vasectomy patients and others with obstruction of the spermatic cord and is thought to represent clumps/clusters of trapped spermatozo...

Penile fracture grading

A simple grading system for penile fracture has been developed but it is not widely used or validated nor recognized by relevant urological surgical societies. Regardless, this system which relies on ultrasound assessment of the tunica albugenia, corpora of the penis, urethra and other fascia 1 ...

Transition zone (disambiguation)

Transition zone may refer to the: transition zone of a nerve transition zone of the lens 2 zone of transition of a bone lesion transition zone (TZ) of the prostate transition zone of a bowel obstruction 3 transition zone of Hirschsprung disease 4 It is important to note that the correct t...

Renal intraparenchymal acceleration time

Renal intraparenchymal acceleration time is a parameter used in assessing renal arterial stenosis on Doppler ultrasound. It is the time taken from the start of systole to peak systole. normal range: a value of usually <0.07 seconds (<70 ms) is taken as being within normal limits 1

Haemodialysis vascular access

Vascular access for haemodialysis is used for end-stage renal failure that requires renal replacement therapy. Options include temporary/permanent and non-surgical vs surgical methods. This article will focus on surgical arteriovenous fistulae. Types of vascular access Temporary temporary vas...

Hernia (general)

Hernias (or herniae) are a common pathological entity, in which an anatomical structure passes into an abnormal location via an opening. The opening may be a normal physiological aperture (e.g. hiatus hernia: stomach passes through the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus) or pathological. Iatrogeni...

Urethral caruncle

Urethral caruncles are the most common urethral lesion in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology The lesion accounts for >90% of urethral masses in postmenopausal women 2. Clinical presentation Most women are asymptomatic, but caruncles can cause pain, dysuria or bleeding 4. On physical examinat...

Lichen planus

Lichen planus refers to a dermatological condition that typically affects the skin, nails, oral cavity, genitals or perineum. Skin lesions are characterized by violaceous scaly pruritic plaque eruption while oral lesions are characterized by erosions and lace-like reticular plaques. It is a chr...

Nutcracker phenomenon

The nutcracker phenomenon, also known as nutcracker anatomy or left renal vein entrapment, refers to the anatomic or pathophysiologic entity wherein the superior mesenteric artery compresses and impedes outflow of the left renal vein into the inferior vena cava. It can be a common incidental fin...

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