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Pediatric urinary tract infection (NICE guideline)

The British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) published the “Urinary tract infection in under 16s: diagnosis and management” in 2007 as a guideline for pediatric urinary tract infection (UTI) management, including imaging, prophylaxis and follow-up 1. This article intend...

Renal transplant ultrasound

The central approach of renal transplant ultrasound is to evaluate for possibly treatable surgical or medical complications arising in the transplanted kidney. Institutions vary in the exact schedule of renal transplant ultrasound assessment, but it is common to obtain an initial ultrasound 24-...

Delayed nephrogram

A delayed nephrogram, commonly described on plain film urography, but also visible on CT urography, is when there is absence or reduction of the normal renal parenchymal enhancement on the nephrographic phase images. Terminology A delayed nephrogram is characteristically unilateral and is usua...

Scrotal scintigraphy

Scrotal scintigraphy is a radioisotope examination of the scrotal contents, primarily in patients presenting with scrotal pain. Indications Although, ultrasound remains the mainstay of scrotal imaging, scintigraphy can be used where the diagnosis is unclear, since ultrasound appearances for sc...

US abdomen (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Ultrasound abdomen is one of the tests that is commonly used in the assessment of patients with abdominal pain. It is particularly useful for the assessment of solid organs and fluid-filled structures. Reference article T...

Hematospermia

Hematospermia (less commonly hemospermia) refers to the presence of blood in semen or ejaculatory fluid. It is a symptom that can cause great anxiety in patients despite usually being of benign etiology. Pathology Etiology Benign urogenital infections including sexually transmitted disease, ...

Testicular arteries

The testicular arteries (also known as the spermatic arteries) are the long, small-diameter gonadal arteries in the male that supply the testis alongside the cremasteric artery and the artery to the ductus deferens. Gross anatomy Origin As paired structures they arise symmetrically, slightly...

CT abdomen (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists CT abdomen is an increasingly common investigation that is used to help make diagnoses of a broad range of pathologies. A CT abdomen in its simplest form is a CT from diaphragm to symphysis pubis performed 60 seconds after ...

Adrenal tuberculosis

Tuberculous adrenalitis is the result of adrenal mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) infection. Its incidence has decreased in the western world with the declining incidence of tuberculosis. Pathology As the tuberculous infection causes destruction of the adrenal cortex, primary adrenal insufficie...

Lipomatosis

Lipomatosis is a condition where there is diffuse excessive fat deposition within the body. This can especially affect certain regions. neck and upper region of the trunk Madelung disease mediastinal lipomatosis heart lipomatous hypertrophy of the interatrial septum lipomatous metaplasia o...

Middle adrenal artery

The middle adrenal (suprarenal) artery is one of the three adrenal arteries that supply the adrenal gland. Gross Anatomy Origin The middle suprarenal arteries arise from the aorta on each side between the inferior phrenic artery and the renal artery. They run laterally across the diaphragmati...

Ureteral duplication

Ureteral duplication is the most common congenital abnormality associated with the urinary tract, and occurs in ~1% of the population. Gross anatomy Duplication can occur unilaterally or bilaterally, and may be partial or complete: partially duplicated ureters fuse into a single ureter proxim...

Ectopic testis

Ectopic testes are a rare congenital anomaly, differing from undescended testis (cryptorchidism) in that ectopic testis is a congenitally abnormally located testis, that has descended from the abdominal cavity away from the normal path of descent while undescended testis are congenitally abnorma...

Spermatic cord contents (mnemonic)

Handy mnemonics to recall the contents of the spermatic cord are: Papers Don't Contribute To A Good Specialist Level 3 arteries, 3 nerves, 3 fascias, 3 other things Mnemonics Papers Don't Contribute To A Good Specialist Level P: pampiniform plexus D: ductus deferens C: cremasteric artery ...

Ejaculatory pathway of sperm (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the ejaculatory pathway of sperm is: SEVEN UP Mnemonic S: seminiferous tubules of the testes E: epididymis V: ductus deferens E: ejaculatory duct N: nothing U: urethra P: penis

Renal replacement lipomatosis

Renal replacement lipomatosis is a rare condition characterized by fatty tissue proliferation in the renal sinus and perinephric space with marked destruction/atrophy of renal parenchyma (due to chronic inflammation). Clinical presentation Patients usually present with non-specific complaints ...

Deep inguinal lymph nodes

The deep inguinal lymph nodes (often shortened to the deep inguinal nodes) form a subgroup of the inguinal lymph node group, and are located within the femoral sheath, medial to the femoral vein. They receive afferent lymphatic drainage from the deep lymphatics of the distal lower extremity and ...

Renal tubular ectasia

Renal tubular ectasia is an incidental finding that is seen more commonly on intravenous pyelography (IVP), but which can also occasionally be seen on CT urography (CTU). Terminology Renal tubular ectasia is also known as benign renal tubular ectasia. The term "benign" was used to differentiat...

Atypical small acinar proliferation

Atypical small acinar proliferations (ASAP) are premalignant lesions of the prostate, which can be found in as many as 5% of prostate biopsies. They are suspicious glands without adequate histologic atypia to establish a definitive diagnosis of prostate cancer. Some studies showed that there is ...

Renal transplant

Renal transplantation is one, if not the most, common transplant procedures undertaken worldwide. Consequently, purposeful and incidental imaging of renal transplants and renal transplant-related complications are increasingly common. These include acute renal transplant rejection and chronic re...

Pararectal space

The pararectal spaces are paired, triangular-shaped spaces in the posterior pelvis. Gross anatomy Boundaries anterior: cardinal ligament medial: rectal pillars lateral: levator ani muscle, internal iliac arteries posterior: sacrum Contents fat connective tissue Relations separated fr...

Paravesical space

The paravesical spaces are paired avascular spaces of the pelvis. The paravesical spaces generally contain fat, but can become filled with ascites, blood, or other substances during pathological processes. Gross anatomy Boundaries superior: lateral umbilical folds inferior: pubocervical fasc...

Renal cortical defect

Renal cortical defects have a variety of causes, and present on imaging as an area of focal cortical thinning or absence of renal cortex, sometimes accompanied by focal caliectasis. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis for a renal cortical defect includes 1,2: renal scarring re...

Male urethral segments (mnemonic)

A helpful mnemonic to remember the 4 segments of the male urethra from proximal to distal is: Pet My Beautiful Pig Mnemonic P: prostatic M: membranous B: bulbous P: penile Posterior urethra equates to the prostatic and membranous urethras. Anterior urethra equates to the bulbous and peni...

Cystic adrenal neoplasm

Cystic adrenal neoplasms are uncommon and only account for a minority of cystic adrenal lesions 3. There may be several histological types: adrenal adenoma 1 adrenal cortical carcinoma 1,2 adrenal epithelioid angiosarcoma 2 pheochromocytoma 1 teratoma (pediatric population) 4 Differential ...

Lateral fossa

The lateral fossae are concave depressions of peritoneum in the paravesical space that lie between the lateral umbilical folds and the lateral parietal peritoneum. The lateral fossae are the smallest of the anterior paravesical fossae, and typically partially contain the cecum and/or sigmoid col...

Medial inguinal fossa

The medial inguinal fossae are concave depressions of peritoneum in the paravesical space bounded by the medial umbilical folds and the lateral umbilical folds. The fossae are contained within the inguinal (Hesselbach’s) triangle. The right medial inguinal fossa typically partially contains the ...

Supravesical fossa

The supravesical fossae are concave depressions of peritoneum in the paravesical space bounded by the median umbilical fold and the medial umbilical folds. It partially overlies the inguinal (Hesselbach’s) triangle. The supravesical fossae are usually occupied by small bowel loops and the urinar...

Lateral umbilical folds

The lateral umbilical folds are bilateral raised ridges of parietal peritoneum in the deep aspect of the anterior abdominal wall overlying the inferior epigastric vessels. The paired folds originate medial to the deep inguinal ring and end at the arcuate line on the posterior aspect of the anter...

Medial umbilical folds

The medial umbilical folds are bilateral raised ridges of parietal peritoneum in the deep aspect of the anterior abdominal wall formed by the underlying medial umbilical ligaments running from the pelvis to the umbilicus. The medial umbilical ligaments are anatomical remnants of the obliterated ...

Median umbilical fold

The median umbilical fold is a raised ridge of parietal peritoneum in the deep aspect of the anterior abdominal wall overlying the median umbilical ligament (urachal remnant). It is seen to lie between the transversalis fascia and peritoneum. It is one of five umbilical folds and should not be c...

Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney

Clear cell sarcomas of the kidney (CCSK) are a rare mesenchymal renal tumor that account for ~5% of primary renal neoplasms in the pediatric population 1. Epidemiology Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney is the second most common primary malignant pediatric renal neoplasm after Wilms tumor, with...

Ureteral pseudodiverticulosis

Ureteral pseudodiverticulosis are acquired false diverticula resulting from herniation of epithelium through the muscularis layer of the ureter and characterized by the presence of multiple outpouchings smaller than 5 mm. It is sometimes bilateral and is often located in the upper two-thirds of ...

Congenital anomalies of the male urethra

Congenital anomalies of the male urethra include various anomalies due to complex development of urethra. These anomalies can be isolated or in association with other coexisting anomalies. They can be categorized as following: urethral agenesis (or atresia) congenital valves posterior urethr...

Lacuna magna

Lacuna magna, also known as the sinus of Guérin, is a congenital blind-ended pouch located dorsal to navicular fossa of penis separated by fold and both share an external common opening to external urethral meatus. This diverticulum is located above and parallel to the urethra. Epidemiology A...

Ossifying renal tumor of infancy

Ossifying renal tumor of infancy (ORTI) is a rare renal tumor. Epidemiology extremely rare, <<1% of pediatric renal neoplasms (17 cases reported) 6 days - 3 months male predominant Pathology Histology reveals spindle cells and osteoblastic cells in a calcified osteoid matrix. It is thought...

Angiomyofibroblastoma-like tumor of scrotum

Angiomyofibroblastoma-like tumor of the scrotum is a rare, well-defined, slow growing mesenchymal extratesticular nonepididymal tumor rarely seen in the perineum or scrotum of older male patients. A similar tumor can occur in females in the vulval region. Epidemiology In males, they are seen ...

Scrotal pyocele

Scrotal pyoceles are purulent fluid collections in the scrotal sac, that generally occur in conjunction with epididymo-orchitis. Pathology Scrotal pyoceles are typically a complication of epididymo-orchitis or testicular abscess but can also occur following trauma or surgery. The purulent flui...

Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) is a common non-invasive treatment for urolithiasis, and less commonly for pancreatic or salivary ductal stones 4. It is less successful in obese patients and with stones >2 cm. Children respond equally well or better to ESWL than adults 5. The princ...

Batson venous plexus

Batson venous plexus, also known as Batson veins, are a network of paravertebral veins with no valves that connect thoracic vessels and deep pelvic veins draining the bladder, prostate, and rectum to the internal vertebral venous plexus 1. These veins are important because they are believed to p...

HIV-associated nephropathy

HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) is commonly seen in patients with HIV/AIDS and leads to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The diagnosis is not imaging-based and must be confirmed by renal biopsy. Epidemiology HIVAN is seen in patients at advanced stages of HIV and AIDS, but it can also be see...

Infertility

Infertility is common, affecting 15-20% of couples, and is defined as the inability to conceive after one year of regular unprotected intercourse 3,4. Subfertility is a synonym 4. It can be due to a variety of both female and male factors, and these are discussed in separate articles: female in...

Localized cystic renal disease

Localized cystic renal disease (LCRD), also known as localized cystic kidney disease, is an uncommon, non-familial, non-progressive disease characterized by clusters of cysts within the normal renal parenchyma. It can be confused with unilateral autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPK...

Prostate specific antigen

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is currently used as a tumor marker for prostate adenocarcinoma. PSA is a 33 kilodalton glycoprotein produced in prostate epithelial cells. Its normal physiologic role is as a liquefying agent for seminal fluid; only a tiny amount leaks into the blood, therefore ...

Sciatic hernia

Sciatic hernias (alternative plural: herniae) are a rare type of pelvic floor hernia, which occur through either the greater or lesser sciatic foramina. The hernias can contain variable structures. See also curlicue ureter sign

Curlicue ureter sign (sciatic hernia)

The curlicue ureter sign1 was described on intravenous pyelogram studies in cases of ureteral herniation into a sciatic hernia, causing a curled appearance of the herniated ureter. Although very rare, this sign is pathognomonic of sciatic hernia. It can also be seen on CT urogram studies.

Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis (also referred to as bilharzia or snail fever) is the result of infection by blood fluke (trematode worm) of the Schistosoma species. Epidemiology Schistosomiasis is very common, affecting over 200 million people, with the vast majority (85%) in Africa. It is prevalent in tropi...

Sunburst sign (renal angiomyolipoma)

The sunburst sign refers to the appearance of arterial blush seen at selective arterial digital subtraction angiography (DSA) of a renal angiomyolipoma. An angiomyolipoma is a hypervascular renal mass that shows a dense early arterial vascular network of tortuous irregular vessels with micro- o...

MR defecating proctography

MR defecating proctography is a dynamic study for evaluation of the pelvic floor and pelvic organ prolapse. Phases There are four phases of evaluation: rest squeeze strain (Valsalva) defecation/evacuation Method of evaluation Many variations in the techniques described below exist. Pati...

Idiopathic scrotal calcinosis

Idiopathic scrotal calcinosis, sometimes called dystrophic scrotal calcinosis, is a rare benign condition characterized by superficial calcifications within the skin of the scrotum of unclear etiology. Epidemiology Idiopathic scrotal calcinosis typically affects men aged 20-40 years. Patholo...

Renovascular hypertension

Renovascular hypertension is a type of secondary hypertension, where high blood pressure develops secondary to renal artery disease. Epidemiology Approximately 2.5% (range 0.5-5%) of hypertensive patients will have renovascular hypertension as a cause 2,3. Pathology Etiology There are a n...

Metaplasia

Metaplasia is a general pathology term that refers to the process when one cell type is replaced by another. It usually occurs in the context of a changed cellular environment to which the new cell type is better adapted 1. Examples include 2-5: Barrett esophagus: normal squamous epithelium rep...

Juxtaglomerular cell tumor

Juxtaglomerular cell tumors, also known as reninomas, are uncommon renal tumor of the juxtaglomerular cells. The tumor cells secrete renin and often cause severe hypertension and hypokalemia. Epidemiology Juxtaglomerular cell tumor affect all age groups, but are most common in adolescents and ...

Prostatic infarction

Prostatic infarction refers to necrosis of the prostate gland tissue from a lack of blood supply. Pathology Histology Histology slices on biopsy specimens may show reactive atypia 3. Causes prostatic artery embolization presumed pelvic ischemia after cross-clamping of the aorta for corona...

Diabetes insipidus

Diabetes insipidus is the deficiency or resistance to the hormone vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), which results in polyuria and polydipsia. Epidemiology Diabetes insipidus occurs in 3 per 100,000 people 2. Pathology Diabetes insipidus may be described as 1-3: central/neurogenic/hypoth...

Valsalva maneuver

The Valsalva maneuver is the forced expiration of air against a closed airway, resulting in increased intra-abdominal, intrathoracic, and pharyngeal pressure. It can be performed against a closed glottis or by one closing the mouth and pinching the nose while forcibly exhaling. It is commonly u...

Urethral duplication

Urethral duplication is a rare condition in which either a part of the entire urethra is duplicated. It usually occurs in the sagittal plane and the more dorsal copy is usually the duplication. Pathology Urethral duplications may occur due to a variety of developmental anomalies. In females, i...

Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome

Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) syndrome is caused by a mutation to either BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. These patients have an increased risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer. However, these gene mutations are not the only cause of hereditary breast ca...

Chronic renal transplant rejection

Chronic renal transplant rejection is a form of renal transplant rejection. Pathology Chronic rejection is defined as a gradual deterioration in graft function beginning at least 3 months after transplantation 3. The creatinine levels may rise but this does not allow differentiation from acu...

Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis (staging)

Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis arises most commonly at the distal end of the penile urethra with local invasion of the glans. In addition to TNM classification, the following staging is used: Staging stage I: confined to the glans or foreskin stage II: invasion of penile shaft stage I...

Vaginal artery

The vaginal artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery, and should not to be mistaken with the vaginal branch of the uterine artery. It is often considered to be a homolog of the inferior vesical artery, which is present only in males. Summary origin: anterior div...

Antopol-Goldman lesion

Antopol-Goldman lesions are very rare presentations of subepithelial hemorrhage in the renal pelvis, presenting as discrete mass-like hematomas. Pathology The cause of these lesions is uncertain, although long-term anticoagulation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) overuse, trauma...

Paraurethral glands

Paraurethral glands (or Skene glands) lie within the wall of the distal female urethra and secrete mucus during sexual activity. Each gland is drained by a single paraurethral (Skene) duct. They are homologous to the male prostate gland. If the paraurethral duct becomes obstructed (inflammation...

Small cell carcinoma (urinary bladder)

Small cell carcinomas of the bladder are rare bladder cancers with a poor prognosis. Its appearance overlaps other bladder cancers, in particular, urothelial/transitional cell carcinoma. Epidemiology A very rare tumor, it has been estimated at <0.0001% of bladder cancers. It is thought to have...

Pseudoenhancement

Pseudoenhancement is an artifact encountered with contrast-enhanced CT, whereby the calculated density of a lesion is inaccurately increased. This phenomenon is most often problematic during evaluation of renal cysts by CT. On CT, it can be challenging to distinguish cystic versus solid renal l...

Prostatomegaly

Prostatomegaly is a term used to generally describe enlargement of the prostate gland from whatever cause. Usually, the prostate is considered enlarged on imaging when its volume measures beyond 30 cc (mL). Terminology The term prostatomegaly is often used interchangeably with benign prostati...

Milk-alkali syndrome

Milk-alkali syndrome is the combination of: hypercalcemia renal failure metabolic alkalosis It is due to a large amount of calcium and alkali being ingested (e.g. milk and antacids for peptic ulcer disease treatment or calcium carbonate for osteoporosis). It is a cause of medullary nephrocal...

Ileal ureter interposition

Ileal ureter interpositions are uncommon urologic reconstructions, using a loop of small bowel to replace a damaged ureter. The concept is similar to the formation of a neobladder from small bowel (e.g. ileal conduit), except one is forming a neo-ureter. Variants include using colon as an inter...

Spigelian-cryptorchidism syndrome

Spigelian-cryptorchidism syndrome ( also known as Raveenthiran syndrome ) is the association of Spigelian hernias and cryptorchidism in children. Pathology It is reported that ~50% (range 28-75%) range of pediatric patients with Spigelian hernias will have ipsilateral cryptorchidism 1,2. Al...

Extratesticular scrotal mass (differential)

Extratesticular scrotal masses (not arising from testis or epididymis) are mostly mesenchymal in origin and benign 1. Differential diagnosis Benign lesions lipoma (most common) leiomyoma of the scrotum neurofibroma granular cell tumor angiomyofibroblastoma-like tumor fibrous pseudotumor...

Transureteroureterostomy

Transureteroureterostomy (TUU) is a procedure in which one ureter is divided and then connected (re-routed) into the other. It is performed when a distal ureter needs to be bypassed and can be performed instead of a psoas hitch or Boari flap. It may be preferable if the patient has had prior rad...

Pyelostomy

Pyelostomy is a rarely performed procedure in which an externalized catheter drains the renal pelvis. It is different from a nephrostomy in that the catheter in a pyelostomy enters the renal pelvis directly without passing though the renal parenchyma. It is much more prone to complication than a...

Nephrostomy

Nephrostomy is a common urologic or interventional radiology procedure in which a tube/catheter is introduced into the renal collecting system (usually the renal pelvis). Nephrostomies can either be "open" nephrostomy: after a urological surgical procedure, such as a UPJ stone removal these t...

Urethral clamps

Various radiological and surgical instruments, including urethral clamps, have been developed to try to improve retrograde/ascending urethrogram (RUG/ASU) and voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) technique in males. These are very rarely (if ever) used anymore. Brodny clamp This device has a metall...

Fossa navicularis (urethra)

The fossa navicularis refers to a normal mild dilatation of the urethra. It occurs at the most distal/downstream portion of the urethra. It is more evident in males, where it occurs in the penile/pendulous urethra, near the urethral meatus. There is also a fossa navicularis in women: the more f...

Cobb's collar

Cobb's collar (also known as a Moormann's ring or congenital narrowing of the bulbar urethra) is a membranous stricture of the bulbar urethra just downstream of the external urethral sphincter. It is sometimes referred to as a type III posterior urethral valve, and does not maintain a connection...

Psoas hitch

A psoas hitch is a method of ureteric re-implantation following distal ureteric resection or injury. The reconstruction is indicated when the distal ureter is injured or resected for cancer or stricture disease, and the remaining portion of ureter cannot reach the bladder for a ureteroneocystot...

Double contrast cystography

Double contrast cystography (pneumocystography) is an older technique to evaluate the bladder lumen. It has rarely been used (if ever) after the advent of cross-sectional imaging. The exam is performed similarly to a conventional cystogram, but gas is also introduced through the Foley catheter....

CT cystography

CT cystography is a variation of the traditional fluoroscopic cystogram. Instead of anterograde opacification of the urinary collecting system (as with CT urography), contrast is instilled retrograde into the patient's bladder, and then the pelvis is imaged with CT. Indications suspected bladd...

Cystography

Cystography is a fluoroscopic study that images the bladder. It is similar to a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), and the difference between the studies is primarily one of emphasis; a cystogram focuses on the bladder and a VCUG focuses on the posterior urethra. The study has been adapted to CT a...

Transurethral resection of the prostate

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is a traditional therapy for lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and prostatism from benign prostatic hyperplasia. Transurethral resection of the prostate results in characteristic imaging features. Indications acute urinary retention recurrent u...

Renal artery pseudoaneurysm

Renal artery pseudoaneurysms are uncommon vascular finding, with the majority occuring after a renal intervention. Pathology A renal artery pseudoaneurysm differs from a renal artery true aneurysm (as might occur in fibromuscular dysplasia) in that it does not involve all three layers of the a...

Urinary tract infection

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common clinical condition involving the bladder (cystitis) and kidneys (pyelonephritis). It is commonly divided into 'uncomplicated' and 'complicated' infections. Clinical presentation painful urination strangury bloody, dark, cloudy urine urinary frequen...

Tamm-Horsfall proteins

Tamm-Horsfall proteins, also known as uromodulin, may be a cause of echogenic renal pyramids in a neonate. Tamm-Horsfall proteins are physiologically excreted by the renal tubular epithelium. They are most often encountered on neonatal renal ultrasound, where the concentrated proteins in the re...

Retrograde pyelography

Retrograde pyelography (also known as retrograde pyeloureterography) is a method of imaging the upper urinary collecting system. After IVU and CTU were developed, it has been rarely performed as a primary study, but it still has a few potential indications as a secondary study. Indications non...

Pyelography

Pyelography (or "pyelogram") refers to imaging of the urinary collecting system. The term is most often encountered in 'intravenous pyelography' (or "IVP"). For some, this is a misnomer and a test that images intravenous contrast as it travels through the kidney parenchyma into the urinary coll...

Cystolithotomy

Cystolithotomy is a urologic procedure to remove one or more bladder stones. It is typically performed for a patient with large or numerous bladder stones or if an endoscopic approach has not been successful. The traditional approach described below is an open cystolithotomy. Other approaches...

Inferior rectal nerve

The inferior rectal nerve, also known as the inferior anal nerve or inferior hemorrhoidal nerve, is a branch of the pudendal nerve which is derived from S2, S3 and S4 nerve roots of the sacral plexus. The nerve provides sensory innervation to the anal canal inferior to the pectinate line and mot...

Perineal nerve

The perineal nerve, also known as the perineal branch of the pudendal nerve, is the largest terminal branch of the pudendal nerve which is derived from S2, S3 and S4 nerve roots of the sacral plexus. The perineal nerve gives muscular branches to the superficial and deep perineal muscles as well ...

Parasympathetic pelvic splanchnic nerves

The pelvic splanchnic nerves, also known as nervi erigentes, are preganglionic (presynaptic) parasympathetic nerve fibers that arise from the S2, S3 and S4 nerve roots of the sacral plexus. These nerves form the parasympathetic portion of the autonomic nervous system in the pelvis. Gross anat...

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) refers to the hematogenous spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pathology Extrapulmonary tuberculosis can occur as a primary form of the disease, i.e. direct infection of an extrapulmonary organ without the presence of primary pulmonary tuberculosis or it can ...

Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a global zoonotic infection secondary to any of the four Brucella spp. that infect humans. It can be focal or systemic but has a particular affinity for the musculoskeletal system. Epidemiology Brucellosis occurs worldwide but is particularly prevalent in Mediterranean regions,...

Renal arteriovenous malformation

Renal arteriovenous malformations (renal AVMs) are an uncommon vascular anomaly, which may be confused with a renal arteriovenous fistula (renal AVF). Pathology Like arteriovenous malformations elsewhere in the body, a renal AVM is formed by a connection between the arterial and venous structu...

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