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Prostate Imaging-Reporting and Data System (PI-RADS)

PI-RADS (Prostate Imaging–Reporting and Data System) is a structured reporting scheme for multiparametric prostate MRI in the evaluation of suspected prostate cancer in treatment naive prostate glands. This article reflects version 2.1 (v2.1), published in 2019 and developed by an internationall...

Tunica albuginea cyst

Tunica albuginea (TA) cysts are the most common extratesticular benign scrotal mass lesion. They are a type of scrotal tunica cyst. Epidemiology The mean age at presentation of tunica albuginea cysts is 40 years (although they may be seen in the 5th and 6th decades). Clinical presentation Tu...

Citrate peak

Citrate is a compound examined in MR spectroscopy in the setting of possible prostate carcinoma. Citrate resonates at 2.6 ppm and is decreased in prostate cancer. For more information go to: MR spectroscopy in prostate cancer

Retropubic space

The retropubic space (also known as the prevesical space, cave of Retzius or cavum Retzii) is an extraperitoneal space located posterior to the pubic symphysis and anterior to the urinary bladder. It is separated from the anterior abdominal wall by the transversalis fascia and extends to the lev...

Bladder and ureteric tuberculosis

Bladder and ureteric tuberculosis (TB) refers to infection of ureters and urinary bladder with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Radiographic features Ureteric tuberculosis IVP characteristic beaded appearance due to alternate areas of strictures and dilatation (chronic state) CT acute: ureteral...

Leukoplakia of the urinary tract

Leukoplakia of the urinary tract is a squamous metaplasia of the urothelium (keratinization). Clinical presentation Clinically the condition presents with hematuria in one-third of cases, dysuria, frequency and nocturia, and thus it can mimic cystitis. Passage of the desquamated keratinized e...

Extrarenal pelvis

Extrarenal pelvis refers to the presence of the renal pelvis outside the confines of the renal hilum; it is a normal anatomic variant. Epidemiology It is found in ~10% of the population 2. Radiographic features Ultrasound An extrarenal pelvis usually appears dilated, erroneously suggesting...

Sildenafil citrate-induced penile Doppler

In the past 15 years sildenafil citrate-induced penile Doppler has emerged as a technique for evaluating erectile dysfunction. It has greater patient acceptability than the usual papaverine-induced color Doppler and is safer. Sildenafil citrate is a popular vasodilator drug used in treatment of...

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) involves the administration of intravenous contrast agents consisting of microbubbles/nanobubbles of gas. Usecases liver hepatic metastasis cystadenoma/cystadenocarcinoma cholangiocarcinoma hepatocellular carcinoma hepatic adenoma focal nodular hyperpl...

Intratesticular varicocele

Intratesticular varicocele is a rare entity, occurring in ~2% of symptomatic population. Pathology It is defined as dilated intratesticular veins seen in relation to the mediastinum testis and extending peripherally. It is usually seen in the presence of ipsilateral extratesticular varicocele....

Urethrography

Urethrography refers to the radiographic study of the urethra using iodinated contrast media and is generally carried out in males. Terminology When the urethra is studied with instillation of contrast into the distal/anterior urethra it has been referred to as: retrograde urethrography (RUG)...

Rectouterine pouch

The rectouterine pouch (TA: excavatio rectouterina 3), also known as the rectovaginal pouch, cul-de-sac or pouch of Douglas, is an extension of peritoneum between the posterior wall of uterus and the rectum in females. It is the most dependent part of the peritoneal cavity and is analogous to th...

Intravenous urography

Intravenous urography (IVU), also referred to as intravenous pyelography (IVP) or excretory urography (EU), is a radiographic study of the renal parenchyma, pelvicalyceal system, ureters and the urinary bladder. This exam has been largely replaced by CT urography. Terminology Some prefer the ...

Voiding cystourethrography

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), also known as a micturating cystourethrography (MCU), is a fluoroscopic study of the lower urinary tract in which contrast is introduced into the bladder via a catheter. The purpose of the examination is to assess the bladder, urethra, postoperative anatomy an...

Scrotal filariasis

Scrotal filariasis is a manifestation of filariasis and refers to scrotal involvement from parasitic nematodes of the superfamily Filarioidea. Epidemiology Known disease of the tropics and subtropics and a cause of morbidity in Asia, Africa and the Western Pacific regions 2. Clinical presenta...

Filarial dance sign

The filarial dance sign refers to a twirling motion of microfilariae (e.g. W. bancrofti) in dilated lymphatic channels. It is identified as a characteristic sign of scrotal filariasis. The dilated channels are identified with the absence of color flow on color Doppler study and the microfilaria...

Crossed renal ectopia

Crossed renal ectopia is said to be present when the kidney is seen in the opposite retroperitoneal space. It is more common for the left kidney to be ectopically located on the right side. More than 85% of these get fused resulting in crossed fused renal ectopia. Less than 15% cases are non-fus...

Acquired cystic kidney disease

Acquired cystic kidney disease (ACKD) is a condition that occurs in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), especially when on dialysis treatment. They do not have a history of other cystic renal disease. Epidemiology Its incidence increases with the amount of time a patient is azotemic...

Varicocele grading on color Doppler

Varicocele grading on color Doppler can be done variably. The most elaborate and widely-accepted grading was given by Sarteschi, as below. For a general discussion of this condition refer to the article: varicocele. Evaluation baseline greyscale study in supine position and measure the diame...

Epididymal appendix

Epididymal appendices, also known as appendix of the epididymis or appendix epididymis, are an testicular appendage found at the head of the epididymis 1. They represent a developmental remnant of the mesonephric duct (Wolffian duct). In 78% of the cases, it has a stalk configuration and is thus...

Testicular appendix

A testicular appendix (alternatively called appendix of testis or appendix testis, and historically also known as hydatid of Morgagni) represents a developmental remnant of the paramesonephric duct (Müllerian duct) which is situated in the upper pole of the testis inside a groove between the tes...

Polyorchidism

Polyorchidism, also known as supernumerary testes, refers to the presence of more than two testes and is a very rare congenital anomaly. The supernumerary testis can be usually located inside the scrotum (75% of the patients) or less commonly in the inguinal canal, the retroperitoneum, or the ab...

Calyceal microlithiasis

Calyceal microlithiasis or more specifically renal calyceal microlithiasis is defined as <3 mm hyperechoic foci noted within the renal calyces on gray scale ultrasonography 1. It has been considered as a precursor for renal stone formation. Clinical presentation The patient may be asymptomati...

Renal sinus

The renal sinus is a fat-filled compartment of the kidney. Gross anatomy The renal sinus is a fatty compartment located within the medial aspect of the kidney. It communicates with the perinephric space. It contains the renal hilum and is bordered by renal parenchyma laterally. Contents ren...

Hydronephrosis grading (SFU system)

The grading system of hydronephrosis developed by the Society of Fetal Urology (SFU) was devised to assess the degree of hydronephrosis. This particular system is thought to be the most common in use and was originally designed for grading neonatal and infant pelvicalyectasis: grade 0 no ...

Adrenal gland trauma

Adrenal gland trauma most commonly results from blunt force trauma. Epidemiology Adrenal gland trauma is present on 1-2% of CT imaging in blunt trauma although the occurrence is thought to be much higher as injury has been demonstrated at 28% in one autopsy series 1-4. The right adrenal glan...

Renal sinus lipomatosis

Renal sinus lipomatosis refers to a condition where there is excessive renal sinus fat replacement. Pathology Renal sinus lipomatosis results from renal parenchymal atrophy, inflammation, calculous disease, aging 1, or exogenous or endogenous steroids. There is usually no or rarely little mass...

Transrectal ultrasound–guided prostate biopsy

Transrectal ultrasound–guided prostate biopsy is considered the standard approach for prostate biopsy and is most commonly performed on an outpatient basis following positive screening for prostate cancer. It is not a targeted biopsy procedure. Nowadays it is possible to perform targeted samp...

Scrotal hematocele

Scrotal hematoceles are collections of blood within the scrotal sac, but outside of the testis. Pathology A hematocele normally results from trauma to the scrotum, or on occasion following surgery. Some think that a varicocele is a risk factor for developing a hematocele 4. Radiographic featu...

Mixed epithelial and stromal tumor

Mixed epithelial and stromal tumors (MEST) are a family of uncommon renal neoplasms in adults in a spectrum ranging from predominantly cystic (adult cystic nephroma) to more solid tumors. Epidemiology There is a female preponderance 10:1 1 with tumors occurring predominantly in middle-aged pe...

Ejaculatory duct

The ejaculatory ducts are paired structures of the male reproductive system and convey seminal fluid. Gross anatomy Each ejaculatory duct is formed by the union of the excretory duct of the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens and is approximately 2 cm long. The ducts course ...

Seminal vesicle

The seminal vesicles are paired accessory sex glands of the male reproductive system. The seminal vesicle produces over two-thirds of the ejaculate and is very high in fructose. Gross anatomy The seminal vesicle is actually a 10-15 cm long tubular structure but is coiled tightly so it only me...

Prostatic calcification

Prostatic calcifications are a common finding in the prostate gland, especially after the age of 50. They may be solitary but usually occur in clusters 7. Epidemiology They are rare in children, infrequent below age 40, and common in those over 50. Their number and size increase with age 8. Re...

Prostate

The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system and is the largest male accessory gland. It typically weighs between 20-40 grams with an average size of 3 x 4 x 2 cm. The prostate is comprised of 70% glandular tissue and 30% fibromuscular or stromal tissue 1-3 and provides ~30% of the...

Penile fracture

Penile fracture or rupture is a rare event, however one that requires emergency diagnosis and intervention. It is a rupture of the penile tunica albuginea of the corpora cavernosa or spongiosum caused by trauma to an erect penis, most commonly during sexual intercourse. The urologist needs to kn...

Pulmonary-renal syndromes

Pulmonary-renal syndromes refer to a group of conditions that can affect the lung and kidneys. These conditions are typically characterized by diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and glomerulonephritis. Diseases that can result in a pulmonary-renal syndrome includes: certain pulmonary vasculitides c...

Gonadal vein

The gonadal veins are paired structures that drain the gonads: ovaries in the female and the testes in the male. In males it is called the testicular vein (or internal spermatic vein) and in females it is called the ovarian vein. The gonadal veins are paired with the gonadal arteries and ascend ...

Layers of the scrotum (mnemonic)

A handy mnemonic to recall the layers of the scrotum is: Some Damn Englishman Called It The Testes Mnemonic S: skin D: dartos fascia and muscle E: external spermatic fascia C: cremasteric fascia I: internal spermatic fascia T: tunica vaginalis T: tunica albuginea

Male reproductive system

The male reproductive system (or tract) includes: penis testes epididymides ductus deferentia ejaculatory ducts seminal vesicles prostate bulbourethral glands It can be imaged using almost the entire range of imaging modalities but ultrasound and MRI are most often used (in part because...

Ureterovaginal fistula

Ureterovaginal fistulae refer to abnormal communications between the lumina of the ureter(s) and the vagina. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with urinary incontinence through the vagina which may be accompanied by fever and chills 1. Symptoms usually begin within 2-4 weeks foll...

Intrathoracic kidney

An intrathoracic kidney is a very rare form of ectopic kidney. There has been no reported increased incidence of stones or infections as can be seen with other forms of ectopic kidneys. The adrenal glands are usually normal in location in most cases. Epidemiology Thoracic ectopic kidney is rar...

Renal vein

The renal veins are asymmetric paired retroperitoneal veins that drain the kidneys. Gross anatomy Course The renal vein is formed by the union of two-to-three renal parenchymal veins in the renal sinus. It emerges from the renal hilum anterior to the renal artery and drains into the inferior...

Nephroptosis

Nephroptosis, also known as floating/wandering kidney or ren mobilis, refers to the descent of the kidney more than 5 cm or two vertebral bodies when the patient moves from a supine to upright position during IVU 1,2. Displacement can also occur medially across the midline, so-called medial nep...

Abnormal renal rotation

Abnormal renal rotation, also known as renal malrotation, refers to an anatomical variation in the position of the kidneys, in particular to anomalous orientation of the renal hilum. It may occur unilaterally or bilaterally. It is almost always an asymptomatic incidental finding. Epidemiology ...

Renal pelvis

The renal pelvis (or, more rarely, the renal infundibulum) forms part of the pelvicalyceal system of the kidney and is the connection between the calyces and the ureter. Gross anatomy The renal pelvis is triangular in shape, lies posteriorly in the renal hilum surrounded by fat and vessels and...

Urinary bladder diverticulum

A urinary bladder diverticulum (plural: diverticula) is an outpouching from the bladder wall, whereby mucosa herniates through the bladder wall. It may be solitary or multiple in nature and can vary considerably in size. Epidemiology There are two peaks; one at 10 years and the other at 60-70 ...

Acute idiopathic scrotal edema

Acute idiopathic scrotal edema (AISE) is a self-limiting condition characterized by marked edema of the skin and dartos fascia without involvement of the deeper layers, testes, or epididymis. It is an important condition to recognize in order to avoid unnecessary surgical exploration. Epidemiol...

Bilobed testis

Bilobed testis, also known as incomplete unilateral polyorchidism, is a very rare congenital variant in children, and considered to be an incomplete form of polyorchidism. Epidemiology Associations malignancy cryptorchidism inguinal hernia hydrocele infertility varicocele testicular tor...

Accessory renal artery

Accessory renal arteries are a common variant of the renal arteries. They are present in ~25% (range 20-30%) of the population and bilateral in ~10% 1. Accurate identification is of utmost importance for surgical planning prior to live donor transplantation 2,3 and renal artery embolization for ...

Urinary system

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. With the exception of the urethra, this is the same in both males and females. It spans the abdomen and pelvis, from the upper abdomen to the extreme pelvis, being inextricably linked with the genital system. The urinary ...

Kidneys

The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs that lie at the level of the T12 to L3 vertebral bodies. Gross anatomy Location The kidneys are located on the posterior abdominal wall, with one on either side of the vertebral column, in the perirenal space. The long axis of the kidney is parall...

Renal amyloidosis

Renal amyloidosis is rare as an isolated entity but can be associated with systemic amyloidosis. Epidemiology Renal involvement is estimated to affect a large proportion of the patients with systemic amyloidosis, with about half of them dying of renal failure complications 8. Clinical prese...

Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis

Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis, also known as Ormond disease or occasionally Albarran-Ormond syndrome 6, is a subtype of retroperitoneal fibrosis where no cause is found. It includes a spectrum of diseases which are characterized by fibroinflammatory tissue encasing the abdominal aorta and ...

CT guided adrenal biopsy

CT guided adrenal biopsy is usually performed for the diagnosis of indeterminate adrenal nodules or tumors. This procedure has declined in recent years due to improvements in, and validation of, non-invasive CT and MR techniques that can now diagnose benign adrenal lesions with a high degree of ...

Transjugular renal biopsy

Transjugular renal biopsy can be performed to obtain an adequate tissue sample for histopathologic diagnosis on renal dysfunctions. It is usually performed in high-risk patients in whom percutaneous renal biopsy is not feasible or is contraindicated. This is also useful in morbidly obese patient...

Spontaneous retroperitoneal hemorrhage

Spontaneous retroperitoneal hemorrhage (SRH) is a distinctive clinical pathology of retroperitoneal bleeding without a preceding history of trauma. For a broader discussion, including other etiologies, please refer to the parental article on retroperitoneal hemorrhage. Clinical presentation ...

Retroperitoneal hemorrhage

Retroperitoneal hemorrhage can be a source of significant yet occult blood loss. Terminology Some articles conflate and/or confuse retroperitoneal hemorrhage and Wunderlich syndrome 5. However Wunderlich syndrome refers primarily to bleeding around the kidney, not the retroperitoneum in genera...

Spoke wheel pattern in kidney

A spoke wheel pattern in renal imaging refers to a vascular appearance seen with certain renal tumors, typically seen in oncocytomas but can also be seen in renal cell carcinomas. This appearance refers to a peripheral rim of vessels from which centripetal vessels converge centrally giving the...

Threads and streaks sign

The threads and streaks sign refers to an angiographic appearance of a vascularized tumor thrombus extending into the ipsilateral renal vein or the inferior vena cava from a renal cell carcinoma. This gives an appearance of linear, thread-like or string-like appearance of the involved vessel. ...

Pie in the sky bladder

Pie in the sky bladder refers to the appearance of a contrast-opacified floating bladder seen high in the pelvis due to the presence of a large pelvic hematoma. This sign should raise concern regarding the possibility of an underlying urethral injury.

Spaghetti sign (bladder)

The spaghetti sign may be seen in upper urinary tract bleeding. It refers to the presence of a linear worm- or spaghetti-like filling defect within a contrast-opacified bladder 1,2. This linear filling defect represents blood clot extruded from the ureter and thereby molded into a tubular shape...

Male urethra

The male urethra is a fibromuscular tube that drains urine from the bladder. It has a longer, more complicated, course than the female urethra and is also more prone to pathology. Gross anatomy The male urethra measures, on average, 18-20 cm in length. It commences at the internal urethral ori...

Bullet and bodkin sign

Bullet and bodkin sign is the appearance of the ureter when there is an abrupt transition in the ureteral caliber. Bullet in the name is represented by the dilated proximal ureteric segment which appears to be perched on the constricted / non-dilated encased ureter which gives an appearance of a...

Maiden waist deformity

A maiden waist deformity or sign is a name given to the appearance when there is medial deviation of both ureters. This typically occurs in retroperitoneal fibrosis. In this condition, there is medial indrawing of the ureters due to deposition of fibrous tissue in the retroperitoneum at the leve...

Moth eaten calyces

Moth eaten calyx refers to the ragged, feathery calyceal outline due to irregular erosions of the calyx. It is one of the earliest excretory urographic appearance of genitourinary tuberculosis. Pathology This appearance is due to necrotizing papillitis, which may further progress to form medu...

Renal hilar lip

A renal hilar lip is a developmental anomaly of the kidney. It is an infolding of the cortex at the level of the renal sinus and in this region the renal cortex appears thicker. Radiographic features On imaging it appears as supra- or infra-hilar cortical bulges. At certain levels of cross-se...

Kidney sweat sign

The kidney sweat sign refers to the presence of thin, hypoechoic, extracapsular fluid collections around kidneys in renal failure patients. This fluid is thought to represent perirenal edema. It can be appreciated on ultrasound, CT and MRI. Differential diagnosis perirenal hematoma perirenal...

Balloon on a string sign (ureter)

The balloon on a string sign refers to the appearance of the ureter on intravenous urography in ureteropelvic junction obstruction. It is seen due to the high and eccentric point of the exit of ureter from a dilated renal pelvis.

Spotted nephrogram

A spotted nephrogram is a descriptive term indicating an appearance of patchy, segmental and subsegmental renal parenchymal enhancement. Pathology The pattern is indicative of focal areas of cortical ischemia or necrosis, as a result of small vessel occlusion. This abnormal perfusion pattern c...

Bladder wall calcification (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for the causes of bladder wall calcification is: CREST Mnemonic C: cystitis post radiation therapy/chemotherapy/chronic infection R: radiation E: eosinophilic cystitis S: schistosomiasis T: tuberculosis

Renal arterial cut-off sign

Renal arterial cut-off sign, as the name suggests, is an abrupt termination of the contrast-opacified lumen of the renal artery. It may or may not be associated with contrast extravasation. It is seen in a vascular injury, e.g. segmental or main renal artery thrombosis or occlusion.

Female prostate sign

Female prostate sign is a characteristic imaging sign seen in patients with a large urethral diverticulum. A large urethral diverticulum in females surrounds the urethra, and elevates the base of the bladder, mimicking the typical appearance of enlarged prostate in males.

Perirenal cobweb

Perirenal cobwebs are the presence of prominent perinephric septa. It is best appreciated on CT images. Pathology The cobweb is considered to be due to engorged venous collaterals or due to edema and fluid extravasation into the perirenal space 1. Perirenal cobwebs may be seen in many benign ...

Mulberry stone

A mulberry stone is one of the types of urinary tract stones. It is formed of calcium oxalate dihydrate. It can be considered as a subset of a jackstone calculus which has a spiked appearance. When the stone has less well-developed spikes, it may appear to have a mamillated appearance, hence it ...

Pelvic kidney

Pelvic kidneys, sometimes known as a sacral kidney, are kidneys that is fixed in the bony pelvis or across the spine and are an anatomic variant 1. Epidemiology Pelvic ectopia is seen in 1 in 2,100-3,000 autopsies. It is considered the most common form of renal ectopia 4. Associations Ectopi...

Pancake kidney

Pancake kidney (also known as discoid kidney, disc kidney, lump kidney, fused pelvic kidney or cake kidney) is a rare renal fusion anomaly of the kidneys of the crossed fused variety. Clinical presentation Pancake kidney may be an incidental finding. However, they can present clinically becaus...

Great vessel space

The great vessel space is the fourth retroperitoneal space along with the anterior and posterior pararenal spaces, and the perirenal space 1,2. Unlike other retroperitoneal spaces, it is not well-defined by fascial planes and thus disease processes affecting other retroperitoneal spaces can also...

Perlmann tumor

Perlmann tumor of the kidney (also sometimes known as benign adenomatous multicystic kidney tumor) is often mistaken for a malignant neoplasm. Many now consider it synonymous with the more well-known multilocular cystic nephroma.

Horseshoe adrenal gland

A horseshoe adrenal gland is a very rare anomaly. It is also sometimes referred to as a butterfly, fused or midline adrenal gland. It is a solitary adrenal gland that is present in the midline of the fused portion either passing between the aorta and the inferior vena cava or posterior to the a...

Lying down adrenal sign

The lying down adrenal sign is a cross-sectional imaging sign of renal agenesis or ectopia in which the ipsilateral adrenal gland appears to be 'lying down' on the psoas muscle posteriorly. Due to the linear as opposed to Y-shaped configuration of the gland in such situations, it is also describ...

Epididymal lesions

Epididymal lesions are most commonly encountered on ultrasonography. Most epididymal lesions are benign; malignant lesions are rare. Benign solid lesions adenomatoid tumor of the scrotum: most common epididymal mass 4 epididymal leiomyoma papillary cystadenoma of the epididymis ...

Spermatic cord hydrocele

A spermatic cord hydrocele refers to a loculated fluid collection along the spermatic cord. It is separated from, and located above, the testis and the epididymis. Pathology It results from aberrant closure of the processus vaginalis. There are two recognized subtypes encysted spermatic cord...

Seminal vesicle cyst

Seminal vesicle cysts can be congenital or acquired. Epidemiology Age of presentation of congenital seminal vesicular cysts is during the period of greatest reproductive activity i.e. in second and third decades of life, while acquired cysts are most often seen in the elderly age group. Clini...

Ectopic kidney

An ectopic kidney, also known as renal ectopia, is a congenital renal anomaly characterized by the abnormal location of one or both of the kidneys. They can occur in several forms: cross fused renal ectopia ectopic thoracic kidney pelvic kidney Epidemiology The estimated incidence...

Bifid ureter

A bifid ureter, or ureter fissus, is an example of incomplete duplication of a duplex collecting system and is an anatomical variant. Terminology Multiple seemingly unrelated terms for blind-ending bifid ureters are currently in use and there is no consensus on terminology in the literature. T...

Ureteritis

Ureteritis refers to inflammation of the ureter, it is rare and is often associated with cystitis or pyelonephritis 1. Clinical presentation Patients may present with symptoms of cystitis or pyelonephritis with suprapubic/flank pain, dysuria, hematuria and/or fever. White cell count may also ...

Supernumerary kidney

Supernumerary kidneys, also known as accessory kidneys, are a rare congenital anomaly of the urogenital system, where there are one or two additional kidneys. Epidemiology Less than 100 cases have been documented in the medical literature. Associations Many conditions have been found to be a...

Transplant renal arterial pseudostenosis

Transplant renal arterial pseudostenosis is uncommon. It is a lesion in the iliac artery proximal to the implantation of the transplant renal artery. Epidemiology Uncommon, although as the population of renal transplant recipients has become older and more diabetic, the incidence of this disea...

Adrenal metastasis

Adrenal metastases are the most common malignant lesions involving the adrenal gland. Metastases are usually bilateral but may also be unilateral. Unilateral involvement is more prevalent on the left side (ratio of 1.5:1). Epidemiology They are present at autopsy in up to 27% of patients with ...

Jackstone calculus

Jackstone calculus is the name assigned to the appearance of a subset of urinary calculi, a rare bladder stone with spiculated and stippled edges3. Pathology Jackstone calculi are almost always composed of calcium oxalate dihydrate. They are nearly always created, and thus, located, in the bla...

Segmental renal hypoplasia

Segmental renal hypoplasia, also known as the Ask-Upmark kidney, is a type of renal hypoplasia. It is often found in young females with severe hypertension. The etiology is unknown but has been postulated to be congenital or a sequelae of pyelonephritis. It is associated with severe juvenile hyp...

Renal trauma

Renal trauma can result from direct, blunt, penetrating, and iatrogenic injury. Epidemiology Renal injuries account for ~10% of abdominal trauma, and thus the demographic of affected individuals reflect that population. The incidence of renal injuries increases in pre-existing congenital or ac...

Granulomatous prostatitis

Granulomatous prostatitis is a nodular form of chronic prostatitis. It is usually diagnosed on biopsy. Pathology Causes idiopathic infection iatrogenic Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine post-radiotherapy systemic disease sarcoidosis autoimmune Subtypes Several classification sys...

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