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Ovarian vein syndrome

Ovarian vein syndrome is a relatively rare condition where a dilated ovarian vein (ovarian venous varix) causes notching, dilatation, or obstruction of the ureter. This is usually secondary to varicosities of the ovarian vein or ovarian vein thrombosis and occurs at the point where the ovarian v...

Urachus

The urachus (plural: urachuses or urachi 6,7) is the fibrous vestigial remnant of the embryonic allantois. The lumen of the urachus usually obliterates following birth and becomes known as the median umbilical ligament which is in turn covered by a midline linear fibrous fold of parietal perito...

Ectopic ureter

An ectopic ureter is a congenital renal anomaly that occurs as a result of abnormal caudal migration of the ureteral bud during its insertion to the urinary bladder. Normally the ureter drains via the internal ureteral orifice at the trigone of the urinary bladder. In females, the most common ...

Hydronephrosis

Hydronephrosis (plural: hydronephroses) is defined as dilatation of the urinary collecting system of the kidney (the calyces, the infundibula, and the pelvis) 1. Hydronephrosis in fetuses and newborns has specific causes that are covered in a separate article. Terminology The term hydroureter...

Renal hemosiderosis

Renal hemosiderosis results from accumulation of hemosiderin in the kidneys. It is usually considered a benign and incidental radiologic finding and rarely results in clinically apparent renal dysfunction. Pathology Renal hemosiderosis is a known complication of the following conditions: ...

Heterogeneous testicular echotexture

Heterogeneous testicular echotexture at ultrasound may be the result of a variety of underlying pathology: seminiferous tubular atrophy - can occur in around 14% of middle aged to elderly patients 2 testicular trauma orchitis

Ureter

The ureter is a paired fibromuscular tube that conveys urine from the kidneys in the abdomen to the bladder in the pelvis. Gross anatomy The ureter is 25-30 cm long and has three parts: abdominal ureter: from the renal pelvis to the pelvic brim pelvic ureter: from the pelvic brim to the bla...

Epididymal abscess

An epididymal abscess is an uncommon complication of epididymitis. Pathology Causative organisms are the same that cause epididymitis: older individuals Escherichia coli Proteus mirabills younger individuals Chlamydia trachomatis Neisseria gonorrhoeae Other ...

Metallic ureteric stent

Metallic ureteric stents are a type of ureteric stent developed to offer improved symptomatic relief of obstruction when compared to polymeric (polyurethane) stents. They are often used in patients with chronic malignant ureteric obstructions who require placement of long-term ureteral stents to...

Conjoint tendon

The conjoint tendon, also known as Henle's ligament, forms when the medial fibers of the internal oblique aponeurosis unite with the deeper fibers of the transversus abdominis aponeurosis. The conjoint tendon then turns inferiorly and attaches onto the pubic crest and pecten pubis 1. Relations...

Inguinal canal

The inguinal canal is a passage in the anterior abdominal wall that transmits structures from the pelvis to the perineum formed by the fetal migration of the gonad from the abdomen into the labioscrotal folds. Gross anatomy The inguinal canal has an oblique course, is 4 cm in length and has tw...

Randall plaques

Randall plaques are described as subepithelial calcification of the renal papilla 1 which are <2 mm in their greatest dimension. They act as an anchor for calcium oxalate crystals and are considered to be a predisposing factor for renal stone formation. Clinical presentation Usually asymptoma...

Ductus deferens

The ductus deferens (plural: ductus deferentes), formerly known as the vas deferens (plural: vasa deferentia), forms part of the male internal genitalia where it transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. Terminology In modern anatomic nomenclature, it is no longer referred ...

Urinary bladder

The urinary bladder (more commonly just called the bladder) is a distal part of the urinary tract and is an extraperitoneal structure located in the true pelvis 6. Its primary function is as a reservoir for urine. Gross anatomy The bladder has a triangular shape with a posterior base (fundus)...

Urethra

The urethra is the terminal segment of the genitourinary system. Because of vastly different anatomy between the sexes, male and female urethras are discussed separately: female urethra male urethra NB: At present (2020) there is no standardized universal terminology for the post-operative ur...

Female urethra

The female urethra is a simple short tube, that transports urine out of the body, extending from the internal urethral orifice of the bladder to the external urethral orifice in the vestibule of the vagina. Gross anatomy The female urethra measures approximately 4 cm in length. It is embedded...

Cannonball metastases (lungs)

Cannonball metastases refer to multiple large, well-circumscribed, round pulmonary metastases that appear not unsurprisingly like cannonballs. The French terms "envolée de ballons" and "lâcher de ballons", which translate to "balloons release", are also used to describe this same appearance. M...

Renal papillary necrosis (mnemonic)

Mnemonics for the causes of renal papillary necrosis are plentiful and include: NSAID POSTCARDS AD SPORT C: a list of causes in decreasing order of incidence DINASOR Mnemonics NSAID Most common causes: N: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) S: sickle cell disease A: acetamin...

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease with multisystem involvement. Although abnormalities in almost every aspect of the immune system have been found, the key defect is thought to result from a loss of self-tolerance to autoantigens. Epidemiology There is a strong...

Ureteric stent

Ureteric stents, also known as ureteral stents, double J stents, JJ stents or retrograde ureteric stents, are urological catheters that have two "J-shaped" (curled) ends, where one is anchored in the renal pelvis and the other inside the bladder. Stents are used for the free passage of urine fr...

Percutaneous renal biopsy

Percutaneous renal biopsy, utilizing either ultrasound or CT, allows for an accurate, reliable method of acquiring renal tissue for histopathological assessment. The biopsy may be of a native or transplant kidney. It is divided into two types: non-focal or non-targeted focal or targeted (i.e....

Renal hydatid infection

Renal hydatid infection is a very rare manifestation of hydatid disease. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on hydatid disease. Epidemiology Renal hydatid infection is seen in less than 5% of patients with hydatid dise...

Twinkling artifact

Twinkling artifact is seen with color flow Doppler ultrasound 1. It occurs as a focus of alternating colors on Doppler signal behind a reflective object (such as a calculus), which gives the appearance of turbulent blood flow 2. It appears with or without an associated color comet tail artifact ...

Rim sign (chronic hydronephrosis)

The rim sign can be seen in association with chronic hydronephrosis. In patients with chronic hydronephrosis, in all forms of contrast-enhanced imaging of the obstructed kidney, enhancement may occur in the residual, but markedly atrophic, renal parenchyma, surrounding the dilated calyces and ...

Primary cutaneous melanoma

Primary cutaneous melanoma is the most common subtype of malignant melanoma, a malignant neoplasm that arises from melanocytes. Melanocytes predominantly occur in the basal layer of the epidermis but do occur elsewhere in the body. Primary cutaneous melanoma is by far the most common type of pri...

CT urography (protocol)

CT urography (CTU or CT-IVU) has now largely replaced traditional IVU in imaging the genitourinary tract. It gives both anatomical and functional information, albeit with a relatively higher dose of radiation. Indications hematuria urothelial mass obstructive uropathy hydronephrosis hydrou...

Lobster claw sign (kidney)

Lobster claw sign refers to a urographic pattern of papillary excavation that may be seen with renal papillary necrosis. The lobster claw sign occurs when there is excavation around the edge of the papilla and the contrast material that extends into this excavated region looks like the "claws" ...

Loop-to-loop colon

The loop-to-loop colon describes an abnormal colonic course associated with the absence of the left kidney from the renal fossa. The transverse colon extends to the lateral margin of the abdominal wall and the descending colon courses medially to fill the renal fossa, resulting in a "looped" c...

Percutaneous nephrostomy salvage and tube exchange

Percutaenous nephrostomy salvage and tube exchange are two procedures undertaken in those with long term nephrostomies. These patients are often either unsuitable or do not wish to have ureteric stenting to relieve their urinary tract obstruction. Nephrostomy salvage Nephrostomy salvage is und...

Orchitis

Orchitis (plural: orchitides) is an infection of the testis, which is rarely isolated, and when in conjunction with the epididymis is called epididymo-orchitis. Pathology Usually, bacteria retrogradely seed into the testis from the bladder or prostate. It can also be secondary to viral infecti...

Pseudoureterocoele

Pseudoureterocoeles are acquired dilatations of the submucosal portion of the distal ureter that mimic simple ureteroceles. The appearance of the radiolucent wall surrounding the dilated distal ureteral segment (cobra head sign) is an important differentiating point. The distinction is importa...

Urinoma

Urinomas, or uriniferous fluid collections, are urine collections usually found in the retroperitoneum, most commonly in the perirenal space, as a consequence of renal tract leakage caused by urinary obstruction, trauma, or post-instrumentation. Terminology As there is no definitive distincti...

Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma

Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma (HLRCC), also known as Reed syndrome, is an autosomal dominant tumor susceptibility syndrome. Pathology It is characterized by: predisposition to benign cutaneous and uterine leiomyomas (fibroids, myomas) susceptibility to early-onset renal ...

Macronodular adrenal hyperplasia

Macronodular adrenal hyperplasia refers to a morphological type of adrenal hyperplasia in which there is adrenal enlargement in the form of large distinct nodules. It can be congenital or acquired. A specific subtype under this entity is adrenocorticotropin independent macronodular adrenocortic...

Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome

The dialysis disequilibrium syndrome (DDS) is a situation characterized by development of neurological symptoms following the rapid removal of urea during hemodialysis. It develops primarily from an osmotic gradient that develops between the brain and the plasma as a result of rapid haemodialysi...

Pelvic abscess

A pelvic abscess refers to a walled-off collection of pus in the pelvis. Pathology Etiology Some of the causes include: pelvic inflammatory disease (tubo-ovarian abscess) iatrogenic e.g. post-surgical inflammatory bowel disease pelvic actinomycosis infection diverticulitis Clinical pre...

String of beads sign (vascular)

The string of beads sign is the description typically given to the appearance of the renal arteries in fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) but may also be used to describe the appearance of splanchnic arteries in segmental arterial mediolysis (SAM). It refers to the appearance of alternating disease-r...

Prostatic cystadenoma

Prostatic cystadenoma or multilocular cystadenoma of prostate is a rare benign neoplasm arising in the prostate gland. If lesions are considerably large they may also be termed giant multilocular cystadenomas of the prostate. Pathology Lesions are histologically characterized by glands and cy...

Split bolus technique

The split bolus technique is a CT imaging investigation used in patients with hematuria aiming to put together, in a single image acquisition, both the nephrographic and renal excretory phases and thus reducing the radiation dose of the study. It is a CT protocol adopted for some institutions fo...

Antegrade ureteric stent

Antegrade ureteric stents are performed under fluoroscopic guidance, typically by an interventional radiologist or urologist. It is performed via percutaneous access from the kidney. It is usually performed using the access from a prior percutaneous nephrostomy, a so-called two-step procedure, a...

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is a surgical procedure for the extraction of large renal calculi. It is usually performed in the operating theater either by a urologist or combined urologist-radiologist team. Indication PCNL is used to destroy and remove renal calculi, typically over 2 cm...

Paintbrush appearance

A paintbrush appearance describes the streaky appearances of dilated contrast filled tubules within the renal medulla on IVP or CT-IVU. This appearance is characteristic for medullary sponge kidneys. A similar appearance is also seen in the renal tubular ectasia; though less pronounced. See al...

Bouquet of flowers appearance (medullary sponge kidney)

A bouquet of flowers appearance is a description given to the appearances of medullary sponge kidney on a traditional intravenous pyelogram (IVP) study. The ectatic distal collecting ducts contain the microcalcifications typical of the disease. This is also known as the bunch of grapes appearanc...

Pelvic lipomatosis

Pelvic lipomatosis or pelvic fibrolipomatosis represents excessive deposition of fat in the pelvis due to overgrowth of adipose cells leading to compression of pelvic organs. Epidemiology The condition usually presents in patients 20-50 years of age. The condition is predominantly (~66% of cas...

Vesicovaginal fistula

Vesicovaginal fistulas are abnormal fistulous connections between the urinary bladder and vagina, resulting in an involuntary discharge of urine through the vagina. Epidemiology The overall incidence of vesicovaginal fistula is unknown but was reported to be 2.11 per 100 births in Nigeria 1. ...

Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome

Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome (BHDS), also known as folliculin gene-associated syndrome, is a multi-system disease characterized by: cutaneous manifestations, typically fibrofolliculomas multiple lung cysts and spontaneous pneumothoraces increased risk of renal tumors, typically chromophobe oncocyt...

Steinstrasse

Steinstrasse [stīn′shtra-se] is the German word for "stone street", describing a possible complication of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) for urinary tract calculi, wherein a column of stone fragments forms that blocks the ureter. Incidence Steinstrasse usually develops 1 day to 3...

Prostatic abscess

Prostatic abscesses are a rare complication of prostatitis. Epidemiology Prostatic abscesses have become relatively uncommon due to the increased use of antibiotic therapy in patients with prostatitis. It tends to affect diabetic and immunosuppressed patients. Most patients affected are aroun...

Nephrotic syndrome

Nephrotic syndrome results from loss of plasma proteins in the urine and characterized by hypoalbuminemia, hyperalbuminuria, hyperlipidemia, and edema. It may be caused by primary (idiopathic) renal disease or by a variety of secondary causes. Clinical presentation Patients present with marked...

Pyonephrosis

Pyonephrosis is a term given to an infection of the kidney with pus in the upper collecting system which can progress to obstruction. Pyonephrosis may be suspected when the clinical symptoms of fever and flank pain are combined with the radiologic evidence of urinary tract obstruction 1. Debris...

Prostatitis

Prostatitis refers to an infection or inflammation of the prostate gland that presents as several syndromes with varying clinical features. Prostatitis is a clinical diagnosis and imaging is useful to evaluate abscess formation. Pathology The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have classifie...

Lithium induced renal disease

Lithium induced renal disease is characterized by a progressive decline in renal function, evidenced by increasing serum creatinine and decreased creatinine clearance. The lithium salt causes direct injury to the renal tubules. The duration of lithium therapy increases the risk of progression to...

Hydrocele

Hydroceles are acquired or congenital serous fluid collections between the layers of the tunica vaginalis surrounding a testis or spermatic cord. They are the most common form of "testicular" enlargement and present with painless enlargement of the scrotum. On all modalities, hydroceles appear a...

Spermatic cord

The spermatic cord (TA: funiculus spermaticus) is the tubular structure that suspends the testes and epididymis in the scrotum from the abdominal cavity. Gross anatomy Course The spermatic cord arises at the deep inguinal ring, passes through the inguinal canal and exits at the superficial in...

Testicular appendages

Testicular and epididymal appendages are remnants of embryonic ducts and are quite common, with one or more being present in ~70% of patients 1. Gross anatomy Four such appendages have been described: testicular appendix (hydatid of Morgagni) it is a Müllerian duct remnant (paramesonephric d...

Epididymis

The epididymis (plural: epididymides) is situated adjacent to the testis within the scrotal sac. Its primary function is the collection, maturation and transport of sperm via the ductus deferens. Gross anatomy The epididymis is an elongated structure, posterolateral to the testis. It can be su...

Testis

The testes (singular: testis), also known as the testicles, are the male gonads and are contained within the scrotum. The testes are responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone. Terminology The term testis (plural testes) is preferred by the Terminologia Anatomica, over testicle. ...

Spontaneous rupture of the renal pelvis

Spontaneous rupture of the renal pelvis, also known as pyelosinus backflow, is a rare complication that can occasionally occur with obstructive urolithiasis (usually in the distal third of the ureter) or occasionally infection 1. Leakage of urine can result in a urinoma, and there is an increase...

Scrotum

The scrotum (plural: scrota or scrotums) is a dual-chambered protuberance of skin and muscle that contains the testes, epididymides, and spermatic cord. It consists of two chambers separated by a septum. It is an extension of the perineum and is located between the penis and anus. Gross anatomy...

Avascular plane of Brodel

The avascular plane of Brodel is the section of renal parenchyma between 2/3 anterior and 1/3 posterior kidney on the cross-section that is relatively avascular. The reason for its relative avascularity is that it represents the plane where the anterior and posterior segmental renal artery branc...

Metanephric adenoma of the kidney

Metanephric adenoma (MA) of the kidney is a type of benign renal neoplasm. Epidemiology While it can present at any age 6, the peak age of occurrence is thought to be around the 5th to 6th decades 2. There may be a 2:1 female preponderance 2. Clinical presentation Metanephric adenoma is as...

Renal adenoma

A renal adenoma is type of benign renal neoplasm. Pathology It is traditionally classified into three distinct types 1 renal papillary adenoma renal tubular adenoma alveolar renal adenoma

Renal papillary adenoma

Papillary adenomas of the kidney are benign renal neoplasms arising from the renal tubular epithelium and almost always located within the cortex. They fall under the general category of renal adenomas, and are considered one of the commonest of renal epithelial neoplasms. Epidemiology The est...

Genitourinary tuberculosis

Genitourinary tuberculosis is the second most common site of infection in humans by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, second only to pulmonary tuberculosis. It can most easily be divided anatomically into: renal tuberculosis (renal parenchyma, calyces and renal pelvis) bladder and ureteric tubercu...

Renal vein anomalies

There are several variations in renal venous anatomy. Some of these are specific to the left renal vein. Left renal vein anomalies are generally classified into four types 2: type I the ventral preaortic limb of the left renal vein is obliterated, but the dorsal retroaortic limb persist...

Retroaortic left renal vein

Retroaortic left renal vein (RLRV) is a normal anatomical variant where the left renal vein is located between the aorta and the vertebra and drains into the inferior vena cava. Its recognition is important in order to avoid complications during retroperitoneal surgery or interventional procedu...

Percutaneous nephrostomy

Percutaneous nephrostomy is a form of nephrostomy in which percutaneous access to the kidney is achieved under radiological guidance. The access is then often maintained with the use of an indwelling catheter. Indications Percutaneous nephrostomy is usually reserved for when retrograde approac...

Renal artery dissection

Renal artery dissection may occur as a result of the following processes 1: aortic dissection extending to involve the renal artery iatrogenic (e.g. catheterization) trauma atherosclerosis fibromuscular dysplasia connective tissue diseases (e.g. Marfan syndrome) idiopathic/spontaneous

Renal vein varices

Renal vein varices (singular: varix) develop for various reasons and are usually asymptomatic. Clinical presentation Renal vein varices are usually asymptomatic. Some patients may present with flank pain and/or hematuria. Pathology Etiology chronic renal vein thrombosis nutcracker syndrom...

Circumaortic left renal vein

Circumaortic left renal vein, also known as circumaortic renal collar is an anomaly of left renal vein when a supernumerary or accessory left renal vein passes posterior to the aorta, apart from the normal renal vein passing anterior to the aorta. This anomaly is potentially hazardous, if unreco...

Renal transplant rejection

Renal transplant rejection is one of the feared complications of renal transplantation. In terms of onset, this can be broadly divided into two groups: acute renal transplant rejection chronic renal transplant rejection: usually after one-year post-transplantation (at least after 3 months) R...

Adrenocorticotropin independent macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia

Adrenocorticotropin independent macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia (AIMAH) is considered a rare form of macronodular adrenal hyperplasia. It is an uncommon cause of primary adrenal hypercortisolism. Clinical presentation Patients with AIMAH tend to present 10 years earlier on average than...

Adrenal hyperplasia

Adrenal hyperplasia refers to non-malignant growth (enlargement) of the adrenal glands and is a rare cause of ACTH-independent Cushing syndrome, with unilateral adrenal cortical adenomas being the commonest. Approximately 20% of Conn syndrome cases are secondary to adrenal hyperplasia. In diffus...

Bilateral renal enlargement

Bilateral renal enlargement can arise from a number of causes which include 1,2: Smooth enlargement diabetic nephropathy (common) acute pyelonephritis renal involvement with lymphoma acute interstitial nephritis acute glomerulonephritis acute urate nephropathy vasculitis/autoimmune HIV ...

Renal lymphangiomatosis

Renal lymphangiomas, which can also include renal lymphangiectasia, are a rare disorder, where there is dilatation of perirenal, parapelvic, and intrarenal lymphatics. The diagnosis can be suggested by imaging, and aspiration of chylous fluid is usually confirmatory. For a broader discussion, ...

Intra-abdominal calcification (neonatal)

Intra-abdominal calcification in a neonate can be caused by a number of pathologies that cause calcification within the peritoneal space or within organs. Pathology Etiology Meconium peritonitis The commonest cause is meconium peritonitis which is the result of aseptic peritonitis secondary ...

Emphysematous cystitis

Emphysematous cystitis refers to a gas-forming infection of the bladder wall. Epidemiology The condition is rare and usually confined to certain patient subgroups. Median age affected is 66 years. More common in women, 2:1 F:M 9. Risk factors Risk factors include: diabetes mellitus conside...

Renal artery

The renal arteries originate from the abdominal aorta and enter the renal hila to supply the kidneys. Any variant in arterial supply is important to clinicians undertaking surgery or other interventional renal procedures. Gross anatomy Origin They arise from the abdominal aorta at the L1-2 v...

Renal lymphoma

Renal lymphoma is usually a part component of multi-systemic lymphoma. Primary renal lymphoma, which is defined as lymphoma involving the kidney exclusively without any manifestation of extra-renal lymphatic disease 3-5. Typical imaging findings are multiple bilateral hypodense or infiltrative r...

Adrenal gland

The adrenal (suprarenal) glands (often shortened to just the adrenals) are paired organs of the endocrine system, often asymmetric in shape. Gross anatomy Each gland is enclosed in the perirenal fascia and each has a body and two limbs: a medial limb and a lateral limb. However, the right adr...

Medical devices in the abdomen and pelvis

Medical devices in the abdomen and pelvis are important to be recognized, just like medical devices of the chest. We often ignore these devices, considering them to be incidental and non-pathological, however it is essential to be aware of potential complications. Gastrointestinal devices tube...

Primary hyperaldosteronism

Primary hyperaldosteronism is a condition of excess aldosterone production and occurs secondary to adrenal cortical adenoma, bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, or rarely, adrenal carcinoma. When primary hyperaldosteronism is due to aldosterone-producing adenoma it is called Conn syndrome 2,3,9. Diff...

Urethral diverticulum adenocarcinoma

Urethral diverticulum adenocarcinoma is a rare occurrence in a urethral diverticulum. Epidemiology Urethral diverticulum seen in ~0.6-6% of women. In small series, only 3-6% of resected urethral diverticula show adenocarcinoma 3-4. Clinical features Urinary frequency, urgency, burning mictur...

Peyronie disease

Peyronie disease is the most common cause of painful penile induration. Fibrous tissue plaques form within the penile tunica albuginea, causing painful deformity and shortening of the penis. Though clinical diagnosis is usually accurate, the role of imaging is to evaluate extension of plaques, w...

Hutch diverticulum

Hutch diverticula are congenital bladder diverticula, seen at the vesicoureteric junction, in the absence of posterior urethral valves or neurogenic bladder. They are thought to result from a weakness in the detrusor muscle anterolateral to the ureteral orifice. Epidemiology They occur almost ...

Junctional parenchymal defect of kidney

Junctional parenchymal defects in renal imaging are a normal variant, which results from the incomplete embryonic fusion of renunculi. Radiographic features Ultrasound It can be seen as a triangular echogenic cortical defect, frequently seen in upper lobe parenchyma. The defect is the extensi...

Renal artery aneurysm

Renal artery aneurysms (RAA) are considered the second most common visceral aneurysm (15-22%), most common being splenic artery aneurysm (60%). Epidemiology RAAs occur in ~0.1% of the population 6,8. They are more common in females 6 with a median age of diagnosis of 50 years 8. Clinical pre...

Wunderlich syndrome

Wunderlich syndrome is a rare condition in which spontaneous non-traumatic renal hemorrhage occurs into the subcapsular and perirenal spaces. Clinical presentation Wunderlich syndrome is clinically characterized by Lenk's triad: acute flank pain flank mass hypovolemic shock Mnemo...

Erectile dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction is a common condition. Doppler ultrasound is a highly accurate means of assessing patients with erectile dysfunction. Pathology Psychological factors (mental impulse) cause the transmission of parasympathetic impulses to the penis. This causes relaxation of arterioles and...

Emphysematous pyelitis

Emphysematous pyelitis is isolated gas production inside the excretory system, secondary to acute bacterial infection. It is a relatively benign entity and needs accurate differentiation from the far more serious emphysematous pyelonephritis, which is gas production from an infection in the rena...

Emphysematous pyelonephritis

Emphysematous pyelonephritis (plural: emphysematous pyelonephritides) refers to a morbid infection with particular gas formation within or around the kidneys. If not treated early, it may lead to fulminant sepsis and, therefore, carries a high mortality. Clinical presentation The patient usual...

Azoospermia

Azoospermia refers to complete absence of sperm in the semen. It accounts for 5-10% of male infertility 1. Pathology It can be obstructive or non-obstructive, e.g. primary testicular failure. This differentiation is of utmost importance, as obstructive azoospermia can be corrected by surgical ...

Renal artery occlusion (acute)

Renal artery occlusion can happen acutely due to in-situ thrombus, embolism, or dissection. Unless immediately treated, it can lead to renal infarction 1. Epidemiology The condition is more common in the elderly, however, it may be seen in a younger age group if they have risk factors (describ...

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