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Cystic artery pseudoaneurysm

Cystic artery pseudoaneurysms are rare and most commonly related to acute cholecystitis 1. Epidemiology Associations cholecystitis liver biopsy 6 biliary interventions pancreatitis laparoscopic cholecystectomy 3-5 Clinical presentation The most common clinical manifestations are 4,5,9: ...

Paravalvular leak

A paravalvular leak, paravalvular leakage or paravalvular regurgitation are an abnormal flow between the valvular annulus and the prosthetic heart valve and is a common complication after valvular replacement surgery due to inadequate sealing. Epidemiology Paravaluvar leaks are common, with an...

Vasospastic angina

Vasospastic angina (VSA), variant angina or Prinzmetal angina is a clinical entity that refers to a hyper-reactive response of the epicardial coronary arteries to vasoconstrictor stimuli. Epidemiology Incidence and prevalence seem not entirely explored and are highly variable between certain p...

Cruciate anastomosis

The cruciate anastomosis 1 forms part of the blood supply of the femoral head along with the trochanteric anastomosis and the ligamentum teres. The medial circumflex femoral artery and the lateral circumflex femoral artery form a ring around the femoral neck. The transverse branches of these t...

Coronary microvascular dysfunction

Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) or coronary microvascular disease refers to a wide spectrum of clinical situations with an impairment of the coronary microcirculation and myocardial blood flow in subjects with respective risk factors. It can contribute to or induce myocardial ischemia. ...

Lumbar trunk

The lumbar trunks (TA: truncus lumbalis) are paired lymphatic trunks that join to form the cisterna chyli, forming an integral part of the lymphatic system. The lumbar trunks carry lymph from the infraumbilical abdominal wall, pelvis and lower limbs 1,2. The intestinal trunk in the majority of p...

Chronic coronary syndrome

Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is a term that defines coronary artery disease as a chronic progressive course that can be altered, stabilized or improved by lifestyle modifications, pharmacotherapy and coronary revascularization. It has been introduced to replace the previous term ‘stable coron...

Intestinal trunk

The intestinal trunk (TA: truncus intestinalis) is an unpaired lymphatic trunk which drains lymph (and chyle) from those portions of the GI tract which receive their blood supply from the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries. In the majority of individuals, the intestinal trunk drains into t...

Aortic arch aneurysm

An aortic arch aneurysm is a less common form of thoracic aortic aneurysm and may account for around 10% of such aneurysms. Epidemiology There is a recognized male predilection with most patients presenting around the 6th to 7th decades of life. Clinical presentation It can be clinically sil...

Intramuscular hemangiomas

Intramuscular hemangiomas, also known as intramuscular angiomas, intramuscular capillary-type hemangiomas, and intramuscular fast-flow vascular anomalies 5, are vascular lesions consisting of benign vascular channels within skeletal muscle. Terminology In much of the scientific literature, the...

Anastamoses between internal and external carotid arteries

Multiple, highly-variable anastomoses exist between the internal and external carotid arteries. These anastomoses may not be evident on non-invasive imaging or even catheter angiography, and may only be demonstrable with elevated intra-arterial pressures or high-flow states. Internal carotid ar...

Acute mesentric ischemia

Acute mesenteric ischemia accounts for the majority (around 95%) of cases with mesenteric ischemia and comprises of: arterial occlusive mesenteric ischemia (60-85%) embolic acute mesenteric ischemia (EAMI) thrombotic acute mesenteric ischemia (TAMI) non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia (NOMI) (...

Arterial tortuosity syndrome

Arterial tortuosity syndrome (ATS) is a very rare autosomal recessive connective tissue disease. It is similar to Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS), the major differentiator being the general tortuous nature of the larger arteries. Clinical presentation It presents similarly to other collagen disor...

Particulate material pulmonary embolism

Particulate material pulmonary embolism (PE) is a type of non-thrombotic pulmonary embolism caused by a variety of non-organic particulate materials. These can include talc embolism cement embolism: comprised of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) iodinated oil embolism metallic pulmonary embol...

Winslow pathway

The Winslow pathway is a type of collateral vessel communication which connects the mammary arteries through the internal thoracic arteries to the inferior epigastric arteries and then into the external iliac arteries. It may recanalize in conditions such as aortoiliac occlusive disease.

Sudden cardiac death

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a term used for an unexpected, non-traumatic fatal event in an otherwise healthy subject. Epidemiology Sudden cardiac death is estimated to account for about 50% of all cardiac deaths with first-time events making up more than 25% 1. The incidence ranges between 0...

Coronary hypoplasia

Coronary hypoplasia or hypoplastic coronary artery disease (HCAD) is a congenital coronary artery anomaly of intrinsic anatomy and can be defined as one or more coronary arteries being abnormally small or underdeveloped. Epidemiology Hypoplastic coronary artery disease is described as a rare c...

Venae cavae

In human anatomy, the venae cavae is the collective term for the main venous great vessels that return deoxygenated blood to the right heart from the venous side of the systemic circulation, i.e. the superior vena cava (SVC) and inferior vena cava (IVC). Both venae cavae do not contain any valve...

IgG4-related arteritis and periarteritis

IgG4-related arteritis and periarteritis is a form of IgG4-related cardiovascular disease, in which multi-vessel involvement is very common. Epidemiology IgG4-related arteritis and periarteritis predominantly affect men above 60 years of age 1. Associations Conditions associated with IgG4-re...

Chinese dragon sign (vascular)

The Chinese dragon sign is a radiological sign on abdominal radiograph and CT describing the radiologic appearance of calcified tortuous splenic artery that resembles a Chinese dragon. The tortuous splenic artery segment on the splenic hilum side represents the dragon head while the other arteri...

Fibrin sheath

Fibrin sheaths are a common complication of central venous catheters in which a proteinaceous film encases the outer wall and endhole of the catheter, which can cause catheter malfunction and thrombosis. Clinical presentation Fibrin sheaths present as catheter malfunction, which may include in...

Dorsalis pedis artery

The dorsalis pedis artery is the principal dorsal artery of the foot. Summary location: dorsal surface of the foot, running towards the first dorsal interosseous space origin: direct continuation of the anterior tibial artery termination: as the first dorsal metatarsal artery branches: deep...

Epithelioid hemangioma

Epithelioid hemangiomas are benign vascular neoplasms made of epithelioid endothelial cell morphology usually seen in cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues. Epidemiology They have been observed in all age groups with a peak incidence in the 4th decade. There is no gender predominance 1. Diagnosi...

Vieussens' arterial ring

Vieussens' arterial ring is a rare anatomic variant consisting of an anastomotic connection between the conus artery and branch vessels of the left coronary artery. Gross anatomy The artery arises from the conus artery, a branch of the right coronary artery, and connects to the proximal right...

Double aorta artifact (ultrasound)

The double aorta artifact is a relatively common ultrasound artifact, which can appear both on standard B-mode and color Doppler imaging, resulting in an artifactually duplicated abdominal aorta in the transverse plane. Knowledge of this artifact is paramount as potential differential diagnoses ...

Marsupial cava

Marsupial cava, also known as preaortic iliac venous confluence, is a rare anatomical variant in which the confluence of the common iliac veins is located anterior to the right common iliac artery and aortic bifurcation. Terminology The term marsupial cava is in reference to the normal anatomy...

Modified Allen test

The modified Allen test (MAT) may be used to clinically assess the patency and completeness of the superficial palmar arch 1,2. Its classic use is in assessing for sufficient collateral flow to the hand, to avoid ischemia in the setting of radial artery puncture, cannulation, catheterization or ...

Superficial palmar arch

The superficial palmar arch originates as the terminal branch of the ulnar artery, distal to the flexor retinaculum 1. It is located superficial to the long flexor tendons of the digits and deep to the palmar aponeurosis. The superficial palmar arch travels distally, then laterally across the m...

Deep palmar branch of the ulnar artery

The deep palmar branch of the ulnar artery originates from the ulnar artery near the base of the fifth metacarpal. It contributes to the arterial supply of the opponens pollicis, hypothenar and interossei muscles. It also supports the supply of the palmar aspect of the metacarpus and digits, via...

Palmar carpal branches

The two palmar carpal branches originate from the radial and ulnar arteries, respectively. They anastomose centrally, supporting the arterial supply of the anterior aspect of the wrist via their contribution to forming the palmar carpal arch 1. The palmar carpal branch of the ulnar artery trave...

Proper dorsal digital arteries

The proper dorsal digital arteries arise from the dorsal metacarpal arteries at the level of the metacarpophalangeal joint. They contribute to the dorsal arterial supply of the digits. The proper dorsal digital arteries travel along the medial and lateral side of the dorsal aspect of each digit...

Intracranial atherosclerotic disease

Intracranial atherosclerotic disease (ICAD) is the term applied to atherosclerosis of the large intracranial arteries and is a cause of ischemic stroke. Epidemiology ICAD is an important cause of stroke in certain racial groups particularly Asians, but also Hispanics and Black people. ICAD is ...

Holodiastolic flow reversal

Holodiastolic flow reversal (HDR) refers to a backward flow typically observed in the descending aorta during the whole diastolic phase and has been observed in the setting of moderate to severe aortic regurgitation. Usage It has been found to predict severe aortic regurgitation with high sens...

Velocity encoding

Velocity encoding or Venc is referred to as an operator-controlled parameter for the determination of the maximum velocity within a velocity encoded phase contrast imaging study. Usage Velocity-encoding (Venc) gradients are used to generate a phase shift in magnetic resonance phase contrast im...

Posterior nutcracker syndrome

Posterior nutcracker syndrome is a rare vascular compression disorder, in which a retroaortic left renal vein is trapped between the aorta and the vertebral column. Clinical presentation The most reported clinical manifestation is microscopic or macroscopic hematuria. See also vascular compr...

Venous drainage of the hand

Venous drainage of the hand is predominantly via the dorsal venous network in the superficial fascia, which extends proximally across the dorsal aspect of the metacarpus to drain laterally into the cephalic vein, and medially into the basilic vein 1. An accessory cephalic vein commonly drains pa...

Cerebral varix

Cerebral varices, also known as cerebral venous aneurysms or isolated cerebral varices are uncommon cerebral vascular malformations, rarely found in isolation, hence the name isolated cerebral varix. They are more commonly encountered in association with other vascular malformations, such as dur...

Crural arteries

Crural arteries are the arteries of the leg, distal to the popliteal artery. Usage Typically used in the context of peripheral arterial disease, the term is used to describe distal lesions, as distinct from those in the aortoiliac or femoropopliteal segments of the arterial tree. Crural arteri...

Grey Turner sign

The Grey Turner sign refers to the clinical finding of atraumatic flank ecchymosis, which is occasionally associated with retroperitoneal hemorrhage, classically due to hemorrhagic pancreatitis 2. It is thought to occur when blood extravasates from the posterior pararenal space and crosses throu...

Carotid pseudo-occlusion

Carotid pseudo-occlusion refers to apparent occlusion of the cervical internal carotid artery on CT angiography or digital subtraction angiography due to a stagnant column of unopacified blood proximal to terminal T-junction occlusion by thromboembolism 1,2. It is important not to mistake this...

Tandem lesion (cerebrovascular)

Tandem lesion (or tandem occlusion) is a term used in cerebrovascular imaging and intervention to refer to the simultaneous presence of high-grade stenosis or occlusion of the cervical internal carotid artery and thromboembolic occlusion of the intracranial terminal internal carotid artery or it...

Intrapelvic cup migration

Intrapelvic cup migration is a serious complication after total hip arthroplasty, in which the prosthetic acetabular cup migrates or drifts into the pelvic inlet. Epidemiology Fortunately, this complication is very rare. There seems to be a female predisposition 1-3. Risk factors Factors inc...

Venous drainage of the foot

Venous drainage of the foot can be divided into two main components. Plantar veins, draining the sole (plantar surface) of the foot, and the dorsal veins which drain the dorsal surface of the foot. The veins of the foot are susceptible to several pathologies, including corona phelbectatica, vari...

Venous thoracic outlet syndrome

The venous thoracic outlet syndrome (vTOS) is the second commonest form of thoracic outlet syndrome (with neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome being the commonest and the arterial thoracic outlet syndrome being the least common). Clinical presentation It may develop suddenly, often after unusua...

Pulmonary arterial ectasia

Pulmonary arterial ectasia refers to more diffuse dilatation of the pulmonary arteries without a focal pulmonary arterial aneurysm. At the time of writing, the upper limit of normal (90th percentile) for the main pulmonary arteries is taken at just under 29 mm for males and just under 27 mm for ...

Nyquist limit

The Nyquist limit represents the maximum Doppler shift frequency that can be correctly measured without resulting in aliasing in color or pulsed wave ultrasound. Physics The Nyquist limit always equals Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)/2. The US machine can display the Nyquist limit either as ...

Tunnel syndrome

A tunnel syndrome refers to pain, paresthesia and weakness due to neurovascular compression, friction or traction within a confined anatomical passageway. The tunnel may be bordered by bone, muscle or tendoligamentous structures or a combination of these. Various specific syndromes exist and ar...

Cone artery

The cone artery, also known as the artery of Desproges-Gotteron, is a rare anatomical variant which commonly arises from the internal iliac artery. Gross anatomy Origin The cone artery has a variable origin and may arise from the internal iliac artery or its branches, commonly the iliolumbar ...

Neoplastic intracranial aneurysm

Neoplastic intracranial or cerebral aneurysms, also known as oncotic aneurysms, are a rare type of intracranial aneurysm attributed to metastatic tumor emboli. Epidemiology The entity is rare, with fewer than 100 cases being reported in the English literature at the time of a 2015 systematic r...

Intracranial aneurysm (overview)

Intracranial aneurysms, also called cerebral aneurysms, are aneurysms of the intracranial arteries. The most common morphologic type is the saccular aneurysm. Pathology There is not a universal classification for the types of intracranial aneurysms, resulting in a heterogeneous mix of terms ba...

Thoracic endovascular aneurysm repair

A thoracic endovascular aneurysm repair (TEVAR) is a type of endovascular aneurysm repair that involves the thoracic aorta. Indications It is a commonly applied treatment strategy for various thoracic aortic pathologies inclusive of both: type A and type B thoracic aortic dissections penetra...

Hepatic artery aneurysm

Hepatic artery aneurysms are a type of visceral arterial aneurysm. Epidemiology They are rare representing ~1% (range 0.01-2%) of all arterial aneurysms but are considered the second most common aneurysm of the splanchnic system after splenic artery aneurysms. They may account for 20% of all v...

Fenestrated endovascular aneurysm repair

A fenestrated endovascular aneurysm repair (often commonly abbreviated as FEVAR) is a type of endovascular aneurysm repair. They are usually performed for juxtarenal, perirenal, or thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms. It usually comprises of a custom-made endograft designed to fit individual patie...

Billowing phenomenon

Billowing phenomenon refers to the presence of contrast medium on contrast-enhanced CT outside of graft metal struts, due to the specific construction characteristic typical of the AFX® stent-graft (Endologix, Inc., USA), designed to treat abdominal aortic aneurysms. It has a unique internal sca...

Carotid near-occlusion

Carotid near-occlusion is a special form of severe carotid artery stenosis that results in a partial or complete collapse of the distal internal carotid artery lumen due to underfilling. It should not be confused with carotid pseudo-occlusion due to terminal intracranial internal carotid arter...

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) are a heterogenous class of IgG autoantibodies raised against the cellular contents of neutrophils, monocytes and endothelial cells 1. Under indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) microscopy, three ANCA staining patterns are observed, based on the varying...

Musculoskeletal arteriovenous malformations

Musculoskeletal arteriovenous malformations (AVM) are typically congenital, growing with age and may not manifest until adolescence or adulthood. Spinal AVMs are discussed separately. Rarely they can be acquired e.g. post traumatic vascular malformation. Clinical presentation Patients can pr...

Smoker's criteria

Smoker’s criteria use three quantitative measures of basilar artery morphology to diagnose dolichoectasia: laterality bifurcation height surrogate measures for tortuosity and elongation basilar artery diameter represents the degree of dilatation The application of Smoker’s criteria provid...

Color-write priority

Color-write priority is an adjustable setting of color Doppler duplex ultrasound and determines whether a particular pixel on the image displays color or grayscale B-mode information at the moment. Color-write priority is rarely changed directly during routine ultrasound imaging, even though it...

Inferior vena cava filter retrieval

Inferior vena cava filter retrieval is an endovascular procedure whereby a previously placed inferior vena cava (IVC) filter is removed. Procedure The procedure is performed under local anesthesia with fluoroscopic guidance. Venous access is usually gained via the internal jugular vein with di...

Reynolds number

The Reynolds number (Re) is the primary parameter used to define the transition of fluid motion between laminar and turbulent flow patterns 1. The Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces, and as such has no units (i.e. is a dimensionless quantity) 1. Calculatio...

Endovascular arteriovenous fistula creation

Endovascular arteriovenous fistula creation is a recently developed minimally invasive alternative for the creation of arteriovenous fistulae for haemodialysis access. Technique Catheter-based technology and image guidance in the form of ultrasound and fluoroscopy is utilized create a side-to-...

Resistive index (vascular ultrasound)

The resistive index (RI), also known as the Pourcelot index, is a calculated flow parameter in ultrasound, derived from the maximum, minimum, and mean Doppler frequency shifts during a defined cardiac cycle. Along with the pulsatility index (PI), it is typically used to assess the resistance in ...

End-diastolic velocity (Doppler ultrasound)

End-diastolic velocity (EDV) is an index measured in spectral Doppler ultrasound. On a Doppler waveform, the EDV corresponds to the point marked at the end of the cardiac cycle (just prior to the systolic peak) 1. In some equipment, the timing of cardiac cycle events may be automatically marked ...

Peak systolic velocity (Doppler ultrasound)

Peak systolic velocity (PSV) is an index measured in spectral Doppler ultrasound. On a Doppler waveform, the peak systolic velocity corresponds to each tall “peak” in the spectrum window 1. Explanation When traveling with their greatest velocity in a vessel (i.e. during systole), red blood cel...

Inferior petro-occipital vein

The inferior petro-occipital vein is located immediately inferior to the petro-occipital suture and provides a communication between the internal carotid artery venous plexus of Rektorzik, or less commonly the cavernous sinus, anteromedially and the jugular bulb, or less commonly the inferior pe...

Microvascular decompression

Microvascular decompression is a surgical procedure for cranial nerve compression syndrome, most often carried out for trigeminal neuralgia, or less frequently hemifacial spasm and glossopharyngeal neuralgia. It is usually carried out via a retrosigmoid craniotomy. The culprit blood vessel, eit...

Anterior condylar confluence

The anterior condylar confluence is an extracranial venous structure at the base of skull that communicates extensively with regional veins and dural venous sinuses. It is located immediately anterior to the hypoglossal canal and medial to the jugular vein, just inferior to the jugular bulb an...

Internal carotid artery venous plexus of Rektorzik

Internal carotid artery venous plexus of Rektorzik (also known as the petro-occipital venous plexus) is a plexus of small veins that surrounds the petrous segment internal carotid artery proximal to the cavernous sinus as it passes through the base of skull. It is believed that the plexus serv...

Marginal sinus (foramen magnum)

The marginal sinus is a dural venous sinus and runs along the inner margin of foramen magnum. It has numerous communications with regional venous structures 1-2: anteriorly: basilar venous plexus posteriorly: occipital sinus laterally sigmoid sinus veins of the hypoglossal canal inferiorl...

Brachiocephalic vein stenosis

Brachiocephalic vein stenosis refers to a narrowing of the brachiocephalic vein. It is commonly seen in chronic hemodialysis patients. Epidemiology A study conducted in Chinese population shows a prevalence of stenosis in hemodialysis patients was 30-50% 3. Clinical presentation The presenta...

Meningo-ophthalmic artery

The meningo-ophthalmic artery is a variant arterial anatomy in which the entire supply to the ophthalmic artery derives from the middle meningeal artery. This variation represents one extreme of a spectrum of the persistence of the embryologic stapedial artery. Gross anatomy The meningo-ophtha...

Non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia

Non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia is the second most common cause of acute mesenteric ischemia, with a higher incidence in hospitalized and critical care patients. Epidemiology Non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia accounts for ~25% (range 20-30%) of acute mesenteric ischemia. It most commonly af...

Hyperlipidemia

Hyperlipidemia is a condition in which elevated levels of lipids circulating in the blood. Clinical presentation Hyperlipidemia is usually asymptomatic. However, certain forms may be associated with types of xanthomas. Pathology Several genetic disorders (e.g. familial hypercholesterolemia) ...

Filling defect

A filling defect is a general term used to refer to any abnormality on an imaging study which disrupts the normal opacification (filling) of a cavity or lumen. The opacification maybe physiological, for example, bile in the gallbladder or blood in a dural venous sinus, or maybe due to the instal...

Colic branch of the ileocolic artery

The colic branch of the ileocolic artery supplies blood to the ascending colon. It courses superiorly along the left side of the ascending colon before anastomosing with the descending branch of the right colic artery to supply blood to the cecum and proximal ascending colon 1,2.

Congestion

Congestion is a pathological term referring to reduced blood flow out from tissues, which may be localized or systemic 1. Clinical presentation Congestion commonly presents with increased swelling and edema of tissues where blood flow is reduced. With prolonged congestion, the tissues may beco...

Angiotensin converting enzyme

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is a central component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) which assists in blood pressure control by regulating the volume of fluids in the body. Normal individuals may have a small volume of the angiotensin converting enzyme circulating in their blood. M...

Color bruit artifact

The color bruit or tissue vibration artifact is a type of color Doppler ultrasound artifact which results in color signal overflowing to the perivascular tissues most often caused by stenosis, AV fistulas, or shunts. Thus, this artifact is useful by pinpointing areas of potentially pathological ...

Intima-media thickness

Intima-media thickness (IMT) is an indirect sonographic assessment of the degree of atheromatous vascular disease of end organs. The thickness of the media and the intima of the vessels changes following many conditions and it can be easily and reliably assessed with ultrasound on B mode in the ...

High division of the brachial artery

A high division of the brachial artery is an unusually proximal bifurcation of the brachial artery into its ulnar and radial branches in the upper arm. It is an anatomical variant of the arterial branching pattern of the upper limb. Description In general, the brachial artery bifurcates into...

Perforators of the leg and calf (venae perforantes cruris)

The perforators of the leg (venae perforantes cruris; PV; or “perforating veins”) are a subset of, and not to be confused with, the larger overarching group of perforating veins of the lower limb. This group of veins connects the superficial venous systems and deep veins in the calf and are div...

Perforating veins of the lower limb

The perforating veins of the lower limb (PV or “perforators”) are so called because they perforate the deep fascia of muscles, to connect the superficial venous systems of the lower extremity with the deep veins where they drain. There are numerous veins in variable arrangement, connection, size...

Venous drainage of the lower limb

The anatomy of the venous drainage of the lower limbs is extremely variable. However, there is order in the variability. The veins of the lower extremities are arranged in three systems: the superficial, the deep, and the perforating venous systems. These are located in two main compartments: th...

Vertebrobasilar insufficiency

Vertebrobasilar insufficiency is a clinical syndrome caused by transient ischemia of the vertebrobasilar circulation, formed by the vertebral and basilar arteries, which forms the posterior circulation of the brain 1. Epidemiology Vertebrobasilar insufficiency is largely caused by atheroscler...

Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma

Kaposiform hemangioendotheliomas are rare, locally invasive vascular tumors that often present in infancy, most commonly as an enlarging cutaneous mass 1,2. They are currently classified as distinct from tufted angiomas in the ISSVA classification of vascular anomalies. However, some consider it...

Kaposiform lymphangiomatosis

Kaposiform lymphangiomatosis (KLA) is a rare lymphatic anomaly associated with a poor prognosis. Disease hallmarks include multifocal, intra- and extra-thoracic lymphatic malformations, thrombocytopenia and consumptive coagulopathy. Epidemiology The exact prevalence and incidence of kaposiform...

Subclavian trunk

The subclavian trunks are small short paired lymphatic trunks, each one draining its respective upper limb, and formed from efferent lymphatics draining from the apical (subclavicular) subgroup of the axillary nodes. In turn the subclavian trunks pass through the cervicoaxillary canal and drain...

Jugular trunk

The jugular trunks (TA: truncus jugularis) are small short paired lymphatic trunks, each one draining one side of the head and neck, forming an important terminal part of the lymphatic system 1-3. Gross anatomy Location the left and right jugular trunks are found in the root of the neck Orig...

Starling forces

Starling forces describe the movement of fluids between the vasculature and interstitial spaces. Fluid movement is determined by the balance of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients 1. Starling forces Net pressure = [ (Pc - Pi) - (pc - pi) ] where: Pc = hydrostatic pressure of the capil...

Spectral broadening (ultrasound)

Spectral broadening is an important artifact in pulsed wave Doppler ultrasound imaging, due to its clinical relevance as a sign of vessel stenosis. Physics Spectral broadening is caused by turbulence in blood flow as the normally homogeneous velocity of reflective red blood cells becomes more...

Inferior vena cava leiomyosarcoma

Inferior vena cava leiomyosarcomas are the most common type of retroperitoneal leiomyosarcoma and most common primary malignancy of the inferior vena cava. Epidemiology Three-quarters of cases occur in women, usually aged 40-60 years 2. Clinical presentation When symptomatic, patients most c...

Lymph

Lymph (also known as lymphatic fluid) is the name given to the interstitial fluid once it has passed into the lymphatic vessels. Formation As blood passes through capillary beds a significant proportion of the plasma is filtered into the extracellular space. Most of this filtered tissue fluid ...

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