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Femoral ring

The femoral ring is the superior rounded opening of the conical femoral canal. Its boundaries are: medial: lacunar ligament anterior: medial part of the inguinal ligament lateral: femoral vein within the intermediate compartment of the femoral sheath posterior: pectineal ligament overlying t...

Femoral canal

The femoral canal is the medial compartment of the femoral sheath, an inverted cone-shaped fascial space medial to the common femoral vein within the upper femoral triangle. It is only 1-2 cm long and opens superiorly as the femoral ring. It serves two purposes: allows the femoral vein to expan...

CT cerebral venography (protocol)

CT cerebral venography (also known as a CTV head or CT venogram) is a contrast-enhanced examination with an acquisition delay providing an accurate detailed depiction of the cerebral venous system. NB: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specific...

Doppler waveforms

Doppler waveforms refer to the morphology of pulsatile blood flow velocity tracings on spectral Doppler ultrasound. Waveforms differ by the vascular bed (peripheral, cerebrovascular, and visceral circulations) and the presence of disease. Radiographic features Ultrasound Doppler Most authori...

Varicose veins

Varicose veins are dilated tortuous superficially located venous channels that accompany the superficial veins of the upper or lower limbs. Epidemiology Varicose veins are more common in women than men and are more common in the lower limb than in the upper limb 5. Risk factors include: pregn...

Aortopulmonary septal defect

Aortopulmonary septal defect (APSD), also known as aortopulmonary window (APW), is a congenital anomaly where there is an abnormal communication between the proximal aorta and the pulmonary trunk in the presence of separate aortic and pulmonary valves. Terminology APSD should not be confused w...

Valsalva maneuver

The Valsalva maneuver is the forced expiration of air against a closed airway, resulting in increased intra-abdominal, intrathoracic, and pharyngeal pressure. It can be performed against a closed glottis or by one closing the mouth and pinching the nose while forcibly exhaling. It is commonly u...

Superior ophthalmic vein

The superior ophthalmic vein is a prominent vein of the orbit that is seen on CT and may be enlarged or tortuous in various disease entities. Gross anatomy Origin Formed in the anterior part of the orbit by the union of the angular, supraorbital and supratrochlear veins. Course courses late...

Obturator artery

The obturator artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. It provides vascular supply within the pelvis and lower limb. Summary origin: anterior division of the internal iliac artery location: pelvis and lower limb supply: pelvic muscles, ilium, head of femur, ...

Vaginal artery

The vaginal artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery, and should not to be mistaken with the vaginal branch of the uterine artery. It is often considered to be a homolog of the inferior vesical artery, which is present only in males. Summary origin: anterior div...

Blunt cerebrovascular injury

Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI), sometimes called blunt cervicovascular injury or blunt carotid and vertebral artery injury, refers to a spectrum of injuries to the cervical carotid and vertebral arteries due to blunt trauma. Epidemiology Blunt cerebrovascular injury is often part of multi...

Internal pudendal artery

The internal pudendal artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery and is the primary supply of the perineum. It is a larger vessel in males than in females and is usually the smallest branch of the anterior division of the IIA. Summary origin: anterior division of ...

Stag's antler sign (lungs)

The stag's antler sign, also known as the hands-up or inverted moustache sign, refers to upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion in pulmonary venous hypertension or pulmonary edema as seen on an erect frontal chest radiograph. The prominence of upper lobe pulmonary veins resembles a stag's antler...

Cardiac MRI

Cardiac MRI consists of using MRI to study heart anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Advantages In comparison to other techniques, cardiac MRI offers: improved soft tissue definition protocol can be tailored to likely differential diagnoses a large number of sequences are available dynamic...

Drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms syndrome

The drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome typically manifests as a skin rash, fever, lymph nodal enlargement with variable internal organ involvement, and represents a hypersensitivity reaction to medication. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation can be vari...

Medical devices in the head and neck

Medical devices in the head and neck are regularly seen by radiologists on plain film, CT and MRI. They include devices which pass through the neck into the chest and stomach or ascend to/into the head. Vascular access devices dialysis catheters peripherally inserted central catheters (PICC) ...

Pinch off syndrome

Pinch-off syndrome is a spontaneous catheter fracture, which is seen as a complication of subclavian venous catheterization. Epidemiology It is a known complication of central venous catheterization with a much-reduced incidence in current practice and is generally considered to be rare. Radi...

Duplicated middle cerebral artery

The duplicated middle cerebral artery is an anatomical variant in which there are two middle cerebral arteries originating from the distal end of the internal carotid artery. Supply The duplicated artery supplies the anterior temporal lobe. Differential diagnosis It should not be confused wi...

Inferior vesical artery

The inferior vesical artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. Some texts state it is only present in males and may be replaced by a vaginal artery in females. Note, the vaginal artery which is most commonly described, is often a branch of the uterine artery. Su...

Middle rectal artery

The middle rectal artery, also known as the middle hemorrhoidal artery, is a branch from the anterior division of the internal iliac artery supplying the rectum. Summary origin: anterior division of the internal iliac artery location: pelvis supply: inferior rectum, seminal vesicles, prostat...

Iliolumbar artery

The iliolumbar artery is one of three branches of the posterior division of the internal iliac artery. Summary origin: posterior division of the internal iliac artery location: pelvis supply: ilium, iliacus muscle, psoas major muscle, quadratus lumborum muscle, erector spinae muscle, anterio...

Lateral sacral artery

The lateral sacral artery is one of three branches of the posterior division of the internal iliac artery. Summary location: pelvis origin: from the posterior division of the internal iliac artery in the pelvis branches: superior and inferior sacral arteries supply: sacral meninges, pirifor...

Renal artery pseudoaneurysm

Renal artery pseudoaneurysms are uncommon vascular finding, with the majority occuring after a renal intervention. Pathology A renal artery pseudoaneurysm differs from a renal artery true aneurysm (as might occur in fibromuscular dysplasia) in that it does not involve all three layers of the a...

Superior vesical artery

The superior vesical artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. It supplies part of the bladder, ureter, seminal vesicle and ductus deferens. Summary origin: anterior division of internal iliac artery location: pelvis supply: superior bladder, ureter, ductus de...

Takeuchi procedure

The Takeuchi procedure refers to a direct anastomosis of the anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta was described in the 1970s and currently remains the procedure of choice. An intrapulmonary aortocoronary tunnel or baffle was performed by Takeuchi prior ...

Hepatocystic triangle

Hepatocystic triangle (aka Calot's triangle) is a small (potential) triangular space at the porta hepatis of surgical importance as it is dissected during cholecystectomy. Its contents, the cystic artery and cystic duct must be identified before ligation and division to avoid intraoperative inju...

Inferior gluteal artery

The inferior gluteal artery is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. It originates in the pelvis and supplies the gluteal region and thigh. Summary origin: anterior division of the internal iliac artery location: pelvis, gluteal region, back of thigh supply: buttock...

Superior gluteal artery

The superior gluteal artery is the largest branch of the internal iliac artery and supplies structures within the pelvis and gluteal region. Summary origin: from the posterior division of the internal iliac artery location: originates from pelvis and enters the gluteal region su...

Abdominal aortic injury

Abdominal aortic injuries are a very rare form of traumatic aortic injury and are much less common than thoracic aortic injury. Epidemiology Aortic injury occurs in <1% of blunt trauma patients, with abdominal aortic injury representing only ~5% of all aortic injuries 1. Males are more freque...

Azygos arch valve

An azygos arch valve refers to a venous valve at the site of the arch of the azygos vein. They are considered common and are more frequently seen at CT when high contrast material injection rates and right arm injections are used 2. They can be of various sizes and shapes, and many of them show ...

Renal arteriovenous malformation

Renal arteriovenous malformations (renal AVMs) are an uncommon vascular anomaly, which may be confused with a renal arteriovenous fistula (renal AVF). Pathology Like arteriovenous malformations elsewhere in the body, a renal AVM is formed by a connection between the arterial and venous structu...

Chest x-ray: PICC position (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray PICC (peripherally inserted central catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs. Reference article This is a summary article; we do have a more in-depth refe...

Aortic aneurysm

Aortic aneurysm is a focal or diffuse dilatation of the aorta involving all three layers of the aortic wall. Most of the aneurysms are caused by atherosclerosis whilst trauma, infection and genetic syndromes are other causes. The broad term aortic aneurysm is usually reserved for pathology dis...

Thrombolysis in cerebral infarction (TICI) scale

The thrombolysis in cerebral infarction (TICI) grading system was described in 2003 by Higashida et al. 1 as a tool for determining the response of thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke. In neurointerventional radiology it is commonly used for patients post endovascular revascularization. Lik...

Interarterial course of the left coronary artery

An interarterial course of the left coronary artery is defined as origination of the left main or left anterior descending coronary artery from the right coronary sinus of Valsalva, with a course between the ascending aorta and the pulmonary artery trunk. Terminology An interarterial course i...

Corona mortis

Corona mortis, Latin for "crown of death", is a common variant vascular anastomosis between the external iliac artery or deep inferior epigastric artery and the obturator artery. It is reported to be present in a third of patients on routine multidetector CT examination 1,4. Knowledge of this v...

Giant cerebral aneurysm

Giant cerebral aneurysms are ones that measure >25 mm in greatest dimension. Epidemiology Giant cerebral aneurysms account for ~5% of all intracranial aneurysms 1,3. They occur in the 5th-7th decades and are more common in females 2. Clinical presentation Patients can present with symptoms ...

Acute coronary syndrome

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a group of cardiac diagnoses along a spectrum of severity due to the interruption of coronary blood flow to the myocardium, which in decreasing severity are: ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) unstable an...

Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) infarct

Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) territory infarcts are much less common than either middle or posterior cerebral artery territory infarcts. Epidemiology ACA territory infarcts are rare, comprising ~2% of ischemic strokes 1,2. Clinical presentation ACA stroke syndrome presents as 1-3: dysa...

Radiation-induced cerebral vasculopathy

Radiation-induced cerebral vasculopathy or cranial arteritis encompasses a complex and broad range of effects on the intra- and extracranial vessels resulting from injury from radiation exposure. Manifestations can include hemorrhages and ischemic strokes, cavernoma and capillary telangiectasias...

Portal vein calcification

Portal vein calcification is a rare radiologic finding which can be seen in long-standing portal venous hypertension. Pathology Calcium may be deposited in a thrombus or in the wall of the portal vein and is more rarely found in the splenic vein and superior mesenteric vein. One of the propos...

Uterine artery pseudoaneurysm

Uterine artery pseudoaneurysm (UAP) is a rare cause of secondary postpartum hemorrhage. Clinical presentation UAP usually presents as delayed (secondary) postpartum hemorrhage, that is per vaginal bleeding which occurs more than 24 hours and up to 6 weeks postpartum. However, some reported ca...

TIPS evaluation

TIPS evaluation is useful to ensure that a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) is working properly and that no stenosis has occurred within the stent. Ultrasound is often used as a first-line modality. Radiographic features Ultrasound The normal TIPS should show color Doppler...

Coronary artery aneurysm

Coronary artery aneurysms are an uncommon, predominantly incidental finding. Epidemiology Coronary artery aneurysms are most common in men 3, likely reflecting the increased rates of atherosclerosis in men compared to women. Prevalence varies in the literature between 0.1-5% 4. Clinical prese...

Cerebral proliferative angiopathy

Cerebral proliferative angiopathy (CPA), previously known as diffuse nidus type AVM, is a cerebral vascular malformation separated from classic brain arteriovenous malformation (AVM) and characterized by the presence of normal brain parenchyma interspersed throughout the tangle of vessels that c...

Raymond–Roy occlusion classification of intracranial aneurysms

The Raymond–Roy occlusion classification (RROC) is an angiographic classification scheme for grading the occlusion of endovascularly treated intracranial aneurysms 1. It is also known as the Raymond class, Montreal scale or the Raymond Montreal scale. class I: complete obliteration class II: r...

Double barrel sign (disambiguation)

Double barrel sign is an imaging appearance of two lumens adjacent to each other. It can be seen in: dilated bile duct adjacent to portal vein double barrel aorta: aortic dissection double barrel esophagus: esophageal dissection

White coat effect

The white coat effect (WCE), not to be confused with white coat hypertension, is a measure of change that is commonly defined as the difference between in-clinic and out-of-clinic blood pressure readings 1,2. Alternatively, the white coat effect can be defined as the increase in the arterial b...

White coat hypertension

White coat hypertension (abbreviated either as WCH or WCHT), and not to be confused with the white coat effect (WCE), is commonly defined as typical in-clinic blood pressure (BP) measurements of 140/90 mm Hg or more in the presence of multiple daytime out-of-clinic home or ambulatory BP readings...

Unfolded aorta

The term unfolded aorta refers to the widened and decreased curvature of the aortic arch on a frontal chest radiograph giving an ‘opened up’ appearance. It is one of the more common causes of apparent mediastinal widening and is seen with increasing age, usually associated with aortic calcificat...

Tela choroidea

The tela choroidea is the thin, highly vascularized, loose connective tissue portion of pia mater that gives rise to the choroid plexus. Thus, it is basically the lamina propria of the ependyma and lies directly adherent to it, without any tissue in between the two 6. Gross anatomy Being part ...

Renal sympathetic denervation

Renal sympathetic denervation (RSDN), also known as renal denervation, is an interventional procedure that uses radiofrequency ablation to destroy the nerve endings in the wall of the renal arteries. Endovascular (trans-catheter) techniques are an alternative to surgical sympathectomy. Indicat...

Vertebral venous plexus

The vertebral venous plexus is a highly anastomotic network of valveless veins running along the entire length of the vertebral column from the foramen magnum to the sacral hiatus. Gross anatomy The vertebral venous plexus is comprised of three interconnected divisions: internal vertebral ven...

Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries

Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs) are persistent tortuous fetal arteries that arise from the descending aorta and supply blood to pulmonary arteries in the lungs usually at the posterior aspect of hilum. Pathology Embryologically, the intersegmental arteries regress with the no...

Carotid endarterectomy

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is a surgical procedure that involves removing atherosclerotic plaque causing internal carotid artery stenosis in order to prevent ischemic stroke. It can be used in both in the setting of symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid stenosis. More recently, percutaneous ca...

Interarterial course of the right coronary artery

Interarterial course of the right coronary artery, may occur if the right coronary artery (RCA) has an aberrant origin from the left coronary sinus. The interarterial course occurs because the artery passes between the ascending aorta and the pulmonary trunk. It is an uncommon anatomic variant ...

Intra-atrial course of the right coronary artery

Intra-atrial course of the right coronary artery is an uncommon anatomic variation in the course of the right coronary artery, usually involving the mid and distal segments, where the vessel partially or completely courses through the right atrial chamber. It is the most common intracavitary (in...

Aortic annulus

The aortic annulus is a fibrous ring at the aortic orifice to the front and right of the atrioventricular aortic valve and is considered the transition point between the left ventricle and aortic root. The annulus is part of the fibrous skeleton of the heart. It is at the level of the sinus of V...

Annuloaortic ectasia

Annuloaortic ectasia refers to a proximal dilatation of the aortic root at the level of the aortic annulus, which is the same level as the sinus of Valsalva. Pathology Annuloaortic ectasia occurs with connective tissue diseases such as Marfan disease and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. It is a cystic ...

Inferior phrenic artery

The inferior phrenic arteries (IPAs) are paired branches of the abdominal aorta/celiac trunk supplying the diaphragm. Their importance lies with the fact that the right inferior phrenic artery is the most common extrahepatic arterial supply of a hepatocellular carcinoma. Summary origin: abdom...

Circumflex artery

The circumflex artery (Cx) is one of the two major coronary arteries that arise from the bifurcation of the left main coronary artery (the other branch being the left anterior descending (LAD) artery). Terminology The circumflex artery can be referred to by multiple terms: circumflex artery (...

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending artery

Diagonal branches of the left anterior descending coronary artery supply blood flow to the anterior and anterolateral walls of the left ventricle. There are usually denoted as D1, D2, D3, etc. There are termed "diagonal" due to them branching from their parent vessel at acute angles. They ext...

Lymphedema

Lymphedema is the pathologic accumulation of fluid in the soft tissues as the result of impaired lymphatic drainage, with resultant inflammation, adipose tissue hypertrophy, and fibrosis. It can be either primary or secondary, due to surgery or disease processes. The condition can cause disfigur...

Portal vein embolization

Portal vein embolization (PVE) is a technique used to selectively occlude the blood supply to one of the liver lobes, diverting portal blood flow to the other lobe, the future liver remnant (FLR). This diversion will increase the size of the post-hepatectomy future liver remnant, which improves...

Left anterior descending artery

The left anterior descending (LAD) artery, also known as the anterior interventricular branch, is one of the two branches of the left coronary artery (the other branch being the circumflex (Cx) artery). Terminology The left anterior descending artery is often given the sobriquet, the widow-mak...

Kiesselbach plexus

Kiesselbach plexus (Kiesselbach area or Little's area) is a vascular region of the anteroinferior nasal septum that comprises four arterial anastomoses: anterior ethmoidal artery a branch of the ophthalmic artery sphenopalatine artery a branch of the maxillary artery greater palatine artery...

Aortic root

The aortic root is the first part of the aorta containing parts of the aortic valve and connects the heart to the systemic circulation. Gross anatomy The aortic root is located between the aortic annulus (the junction of the outflow tract of the left ventricle and the aortic valve) and the si...

Cortical vein thrombosis

Cortical vein thrombosis, also known as superficial cerebral vein thrombosis, is a subset of cerebral venous thrombosis involving the superficial cerebral veins besides the dural sinus, often coexisting with deep cerebral vein thrombosis or dural venous sinus thrombosis. It has different clinica...

Heyde syndrome

Heyde syndrome is an association between aortic valve stenosis and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The etiology of the gastrointestinal bleeding in this setting is uncertain, but it is thought to be related to intestinal angiodysplasia. The strength of this association independent of age-related d...

Marginal artery of Drummond and arc of Riolan (mnemonic)

Remembering the colon vascular supply can be confusing because of inconstant collateral vascularization, therefore mnemonics can be helpful. One way to remember the location of the marginal artery of Drummond is to remember that it runs distally to the root of the mesentery (near the colon). I...

Chronic hereditary lymphedema

Chronic hereditary lymphedema (also known as Milroy disease) is a condition characterized by lower limb lymphedema. Patients typically present with pedal edema at or before birth or soon after. Occasionally, it develops later in life. Clinical presentation The commonest presentation is bilater...

Subclavian vein

The subclavian veins are the major veins that drain the upper limbs. Gross anatomy Origin and course The subclavian vein is the continuation of the axillary vein as it crosses the lateral border of the 1st rib. It then arches cephalad, posterior to the medial clavicle before curving caudally ...

Branches of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery (mnemonic)

Mnemonics to remember the branches of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery are: SOI VU MR PIG (it can be remembered as SO fourth (IV) U MR PIG) Oranges Under Some Ice Might Peel Instantly Some Old Uteruses May Get Prolapsed (the consistent branches, in order, in females) Mnemon...

Onyx

OnyxTM is the trade name for a liquid embolic agent used in interventional radiology for the occlusion of blood vessels in embolization therapy. It is an elastic copolymer (ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH)), dissolved in dimethyl-sulfoxide (DMSO). Micronised tantalum powder is also added ...

Retromandibular vein

The retromandibular vein, also known as the posterior facial vein, runs through the substance of the parotid gland. Gross anatomy Origin and course The retromandibular vein is formed, usually within the parotid, by the confluence of the maxillary vein and the superficial temporal vein. It lie...

Cavernous sinus hemangioma

Cavernous sinus hemangioma is an uncommon cause of a cavernous sinus mass. Preoperative diagnosis is important to avoid unexpected surgical blood loss. Epidemiology Cavernous hemangiomas of the cavernous sinus account for less than 1% of all parasellar masses 1. They have a predilection for m...

Frontopolar artery

The frontopolar artery is a branch of the A2 segment of the anterior cerebral artery (ACA), commonly arising after the medial frontobasal artery and coursing obliquely across the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere towards the frontal pole.

Medial frontobasal artery

The medial frontobasal artery is a branch of the A2 segment of the anterior cerebral artery (ACA) which runs forward and basally along the medial surface of the hemisphere towards the frontal pole, suppling the orbital part of the frontal lobe from its medial side.

Temporopolar artery

The temporopolar artery is usually a dorsolateral branch from the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) and supplies the polar and anterolateral portions of the temporal lobe. This artery may arise as a branch from the anterior temporal artery 1.

Anterior tibial artery

The anterior tibial artery is the main arterial supply of the anterior compartment of the leg. Gross anatomy The anterior tibial artery arises from the popliteal artery in the popliteal fossa and continues distally as the dorsalis pedis artery. Course The popliteal artery usually divides at...

Anterior temporal artery

The anterior temporal artery is usually a branch of the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) that curves out of the Sylvian fissure and runs over the temporal lobe to supply the anterior third of the superior, middle and inferior temporal gyri. Variant anatomy The temporopolar arter...

Lenticulostriate arteries

The lenticulostriate arteries, also known as anterolateral central arteries, are a collection of small perforating arteries arising from the anterior part of the circle of Willis and supplying the basal ganglia. They are divided into: medial lenticulostriate arteries lateral lenticulostriate...

Basilar artery hypoplasia

Basilar artery hypoplasia is a rare vascular anomaly of the basilar artery. Pathology Associations Basilar artery hypoplasia is usually accompanied by one or more fo the following: persistent carotid-vertebrobasilar anastomoses hypoplastic V4 segments of the vertebral arteries unilateral o...

Conus artery

The conus artery is a small early branch off the right coronary artery (RCA) circulation. Gross anatomy Supply The artery has a variable distribution, but usually supplies a region of the anterior interventricular septum and the conus of the main pulmonary artery (hence its name). Variant an...

Fontan procedure

The Fontan procedure is a repair surgical strategy for congenital cardiac anomalies. It is not usually used in isolation, but in combination with other repair procedures in a staged manner in an attempt to correct the underlying cardiac pathology. Rationale The procedure attempts to bypass the...

Great cardiac vein

The great cardiac vein (GCV) runs in the anterior interventricular groove and drains the anterior aspect of the heart where it is the venous complement of the left anterior descending artery. It is the main tributary of the coronary sinus. Gross anatomy It begins on the anterior surface of th...

Persistent communications between the carotid and vertebrobasilar arteries (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to recall the persistent communications between the anterior (carotid) and posterior (vertebrobasilar) systems is: HOT Pepper Knowledge of these anatomical variants is important to avoid confusion with pathology and to prevent inadvertent injury during surgery. Mnemonic H: hypoglo...

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), also known as Grönblad–Strandberg syndrome, is a systemic condition characterized by the degeneration of elastic fibers. It has multiorgan manifestations. Epidemiology Its prevalence is estimated to be around 1 in 25,000 9. Clinical presentation Patients may ...

Double retroaortic left renal vein

Double retroaortic left renal vein is a very rare entity that is usually clinically silent and detected incidentally at imaging, surgery, or autopsy. The knowledge of anatomical variations helps the surgeon or interventionist to avoid complications during surgery and interventional procedures 4...

Idiopathic non-cirrhotic portal hypertension

Idiopathic non-cirrhotic portal hypertension is the clinical diagnosis of exclusion featuring portal hypertension without hepatic cirrhosis, vascular obstruction, schistosomiasis, or a variety of other chronic liver diseases. Terminology Prior terms for this entity include non-cirrhotic portal...

Fetal middle cerebral artery pulsatility index

The fetal middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility index (PI) is a key parameter used in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is calculated by subtracting the end-diastolic velocity (EDV) from the peak systolic velocity (PSV) and then dividing by the time-averaged (mean) velocit...

Lower limb anatomy

Lower limb anatomy encompasses the anatomy of all structures of the lower limb, including the hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, and foot. This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard of anatomical nomenclature.

Thorax

The thorax (plural: thoraces) also known as the chest, refers to that anatomical region of the body containing the heart and lungs, thoracic aorta, great vessels and surrounding structures, all contained within the thoracic cavity. It also includes the thoracic skeleton, the thoracic spine, and ...

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