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Persistent communications between the carotid and vertebrobasilar arteries (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to recall the persistent communications between the anterior (carotid) and posterior (vertebrobasilar) systems is: HOT Pepper Knowledge of these anatomical variants is important to avoid confusion with pathology and to prevent inadvertent injury during surgery. Mnemonic H: hypoglo...

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), also known as Grönblad–Strandberg syndrome, is a systemic condition characterized by the degeneration of elastic fibers. It has multiorgan manifestations. Epidemiology Its prevalence is estimated to be around 1 in 25,000 9. Clinical presentation Patients may ...

Double retroaortic left renal vein

Double retroaortic left renal vein is a very rare entity that is usually clinically silent and detected incidentally at imaging, surgery, or autopsy. The knowledge of anatomical variations helps the surgeon or interventionist to avoid complications during surgery and interventional procedures 4...

Idiopathic non-cirrhotic portal hypertension

Idiopathic non-cirrhotic portal hypertension is the clinical diagnosis of exclusion featuring portal hypertension without hepatic cirrhosis, vascular obstruction, schistosomiasis, or a variety of other chronic liver diseases. Terminology Prior terms for this entity include non-cirrhotic portal...

Fetal middle cerebral artery pulsatility index

The fetal middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility index (PI) is a key parameter used in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is calculated by subtracting the end-diastolic velocity (EDV) from the peak systolic velocity (PSV) and then dividing by the time-averaged (mean) velocit...

Lower limb anatomy

Lower limb anatomy encompasses the anatomy of all structures of the lower limb, including the hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, and foot. This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard of anatomical nomenclature.

Thorax

The thorax (plural: thoraces) also known as the chest, refers to that anatomical region of the body containing the heart and lungs, thoracic aorta, great vessels and surrounding structures, all contained within the thoracic cavity. It also includes the thoracic skeleton, the thoracic spine, and ...

Abdominal and pelvic anatomy

Abdominal and pelvic anatomy encompasses the anatomy of all structures of the abdominal and pelvic cavities. This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard of anatomical nomenclature.

Upper limb anatomy

Upper limb anatomy encompasses the anatomy of the shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist and hand. This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard of anatomical nomenclature.

Vasculopathies caused by varicella zoster virus

Vasculopathies caused by varicella zoster virus (VZV) represent a group of illnesses involving both small and large CNS arteries caused by a inflammatory process involving the vascular media and endothelium. It usually occurs in immunocompromised individuals due viral reactivation and spread thr...

Central nervous system vasculitis

Central nervous system (CNS) vasculitides represent a heterogeneous group of inflammatory diseases (vasculitis or cerebral angiitis) affecting the walls of blood vessels in the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. Please refer to the article on vasculitis for a general discussion of that entity. ...

Pulmonary artery sarcoma

Pulmonary artery sarcomas are extremely rare tumors that originate from the intimal mesenchymal cells of the pulmonary artery. It is frequently misdiagnosed as pulmonary thromboembolism. Epidemiology Primary malignant tumors of the pulmonary arteries are very rare with an incidence of 0.001–...

Paraumbilical veins

The paraumbilical veins are small veins around the falciform ligament that drain venous blood from the anterior part of the abdominal wall and diaphragm directly into the liver and communicate with other anterior abdominal wall veins 1,2. Gross anatomy The superior vein of Sappey drains the u...

Pulmonary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma

Pulmonary epithelioid hemangioendothelioma is a rare vascular tumor of the lung and/or pleura with low malignant potential. Epidemiology It is a rare tumor, with ~50 cases reported. Patient age at presentation ranges from 25-54 years old, with a female predilection. Clinical presentation Pul...

Arterial supply to the foot

Arterial supply to the foot can be divided into plantar and dorsal components. Plantar arterial supply Posterior tibial artery gives off its calcaneal branch then divides into the medial and lateral plantar arteries Medial plantar artery branch of the posterior tibial artery smaller cal...

Arterial supply to the hand

The arterial supply to the hand is comprised of a complex vascular network formed from the branches and distal continuations of the radial and ulnar arteries. This rich vascular network can be divided into palmar and dorsal components. Palmar arterial supply The palmar arterial supply can be d...

Cerebral air embolism

Cerebral air embolism is rare but can be fatal. They may be venous or arterial and are often iatrogenic. Clinical presentation Presentation is often varied and non-specific but includes confusion, motor weakness, decreased consciousness, seizure, and loss of vision. Pathology Cerebral air ...

Carotidynia

Carotidynia, also known as Fay syndrome, is a rare syndrome characterized by neck pain in the region of the carotid bifurcation. It was classified by the International Headache Society (IHS) in 1988 as an idiopathic neck pain syndrome associated with tenderness over the carotid bifurcation with...

Pulmonary arterial calcification

Pulmonary arterial calcification is a phenomenon which is usually seen in the setting of advanced pulmonary hypertension. It can however be uncommonly present in those without pulmonary hypertension. Pathology The general mechanism in the vast majority is thought to be from high end pulmonary ...

Pulmonary arterial atherosclerosis

Pulmonary artery atherosclerosis is less common than systemic arterial atherosclerosis in the thorax. It has been shown to correlate with the following factors age right ventricular dilatation right ventricular hypertrophy pulmonary emphysema aortic atherosclerosis pulmonary hypertensio...

Vascular rings and slings

Vascular rings and slings refer to the congenital vascular encirclement of the esophagus and/or trachea by anomalous/aberrant vessels. Epidemiology Vascular rings are rare, occurring in <1% of patients 1. No gender or ethnic predispositions have been identified 3. Clinical presentation Man...

CT angiography of the splanchnic vessels (protocol)

Multislice CT angiography of the splanchnic vessels is a powerful minimally invasive technique for the evaluation of the splanchnic vascular system. Indications CT angiography is indicated in the evaluation of the following conditions related to the splanchnic vessels 8: aneurysm thromb...

Extrahepatic portal vein obstruction

Extrahepatic portal vein obstruction is the most common cause of non-cirrhotic portal hypertension in children and young adults in developing countries. It may or may not extend into the intrahepatic portal vein. Clinical presentation It usually occurs in children and young adults, presenting ...

Lateralized internal carotid artery

The lateralized internal carotid artery is an anatomic variation of the course of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery (ICA). It can be visualized on CT by its more posterolateral entrance to the skull base and protrusion into the anterior mesotympanum. Clinical presentation It m...

Coronary sinus

The coronary sinus is the largest cardiac venous structure. It returns the majority of the blood supply for the left ventricle to the right atrium. Gross anatomy The coronary sinus courses along the posterior wall of the left atrium into the left atrioventricular groove. It normally drains int...

Coronary veins

The coronary veins return deoxygenated blood from the myocardium back to the right atrium. Most venous blood returns via the coronary sinus. Coronary venous anatomy is highly variable, but is generally comprised of three groups: cardiac veins which drain into the coronary sinus: great cardiac ...

Pulmonary vein stenosis

Pulmonary vein stenosis refers to a spectrum of conditions characterized by narrowing of the pulmonary veins. It can be congenital or acquired. primary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in children secondary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in adults and usually associated with some identifiabl...

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia is a type of pulmonary vein atresia. Clinical presentation The condition usually present in infancy or childhood with recurrent episodes of pneumonia and/or hemoptysis. Presentation in adulthood does occur but is uncommon. Pathology It results from failure o...

Pulmonary vein atresia

Pulmonary vein atresia represents to a spectrum of disorders where the pulmonary veins fail to form to varying degrees. It can be broadly divided into: unilateral pulmonary vein atresia bilateral pulmonary vein atresia - common pulmonary vein atresia See also anomalous pulmonary venous drai...

Unilateral pulmonary artery atresia

Unilateral pulmonary artery atresia (UPAA), also known as unilateral absence of the pulmonary artery (UAPA) or proximal interruption of the pulmonary artery, is a variant of pulmonary artery atresia. Terminology The term interruption is preferred by some to absence or atresia because the anom...

Arteriovenous fistula

An arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is a fistulous connection between an adjacent artery and vein. Unlike an arteriovenous malformation (AVM), these are frequently acquired lesions, rather than developmental abnormalities. Epidemiology Associations Certain syndromes are associated with arterioveno...

Inferior interventricular artery

The inferior interventricular artery (also known as the posterior interventricular artery or posterior descending artery, PDA) is an artery that extends along the inferior interventricular sulcus. The artery supplies the posterior third of the interventricular septum through posterior septal per...

Gadofosveset trisodium

Gadofosveset trisodium (also known as Ablavar or Vasovist) is an intravenous blood pool contrast agent used in magnetic resonance imaging. The manufacturer discontinued production in 2017 due to poor sales. It was designed as an agent for contrast-enhanced MR angiography since it exhibits stron...

Carotid artery stenosis

Carotid artery stenosis, also known as extracranial carotid artery stenosis, is usually caused by an atherosclerotic process and is one of the major causes of stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA). This article refers to stenosis involving the carotid bulb and the proximal segment of inte...

Accessory appendicular artery

The accessory appendicular artery, also known as the artery of Seshachalam, is a branch of the posterior cecal artery. It arises from the ileocolic artery, and runs in the mesoappendix. The exact prevalence of this accessory artery and its impact upon the risk of appendicitis varies among studi...

Adrenal lymphangioma

Adrenal lymphangiomas, also known as cystic adrenal lymphangiomas, are rare, benign cystic adrenal lesions. Epidemiology Adrenal lymphangiomas are extremely rare; prevalence is estimated at 0.06% 8. They can occur at any age, with a peak incidence between the 3rd and 6th decades of life. Accor...

Adrenal vein sampling

Adrenal vein sampling (AVS) is a procedure where blood is collected from the adrenal veins via catheter to confirm autonomous hormone production, if it is unilateral or bilateral, and to guide further treatment 1. If unilateral, the adrenal gland can be removed by surgery; thus curing secondary ...

Cutaneous leukocytoclastic angiitis

Cutaneous leukocytoclastic angiitis is a form of vasculitis that affect the skin. This is considered the most common of vasculitis affecting the skin and usually results from deposition of immune complexes at the vessel wall. Patients usually have a palpable purpura.

Cirsoid aneurysm

Cirsoid aneurysms are rare arteriovenous malformations of the scalp and extremities. Clinical presentation Patients often present with a slow-growing pulsatile mass and may also experience bleeding, tinnitus and/or a headache 3. Pathology Cirsoid aneurysms develop due to an abnormal arteri...

ISSVA classification of vascular anomalies

The ISSVA classification of vascular anomalies encompasses all vascular malformations and tumors in a framework of internationally consistent nomenclature. ISSVA is the International Society for the Study of Vascular Anomalies. It is based on the initial classification published by Mulliken and...

Hamburg classification system of vascular malformations

Hamburg classification system of vascular malformations is one of the more commonly used systems to describe the wide range of vascular malformations, largely replacing the many various eponymous syndromes traditionally used. It accounts for the underlying anatomical, histological, and pathophys...

Visceral artery aneurysm

Visceral artery aneurysms are abnormal focal dilatations of splanchnic arteries supplying abdominal organs. Visceral artery aneurysms include both true aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms. Owing to different clinical manifestations and a unique, specific, pathology, renal artery aneurysms are discuss...

Prostatic artery embolization

Prostatic artery embolization (PAE) is a minimally invasive procedure utilized to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Indications PAE has been used for controlling prostatic hemorrhage (such as that associated prostate cancer) since 1970. However, its use in the treatment of lower urina...

Rotational vertebral artery occlusion syndrome

Rotational vertebral artery occlusion syndrome, also known as bow hunter's syndrome, is a rare form of vertebrobasilar insufficiency secondary to dynamic compression of the usually dominant vertebral artery. Clinical features Symptoms are usually transient and elicited upon rotation of the he...

Power Doppler

Power Doppler is a technique that uses the amplitude of Doppler signal to detect moving matter. Power Doppler: is independent of velocity and direction of flow, so there is no possibility of signal aliasing is independent of angle, allowing detection of smaller velocities than color Doppler, f...

Segmental arterial mediolysis

Segmental arterial mediolysis (SAM) is an increasingly recognized vascular disease of the middle-aged and elderly and a leading cause of spontaneous intra-abdominal hemorrhage. It is characterized by fusiform aneurysms, stenoses, dissections and occlusions within splanchnic arterial branches. Im...

Pulmonary vein thrombosis

Pulmonary vein thrombosis is a rare but potentially serious condition with a number of underlying possible etiologies. Clinical presentation Often the signs and symptoms are nonspecific and can range from acute (pulmonary infarction) to more insidious (progressive or recurrent pulmonary edema)...

Vertebral artery ectasia

Vertebral artery ectasia refers to an abnormal dilatation of the vertebral artery. It is also known as a dolichoarterial loop (of Danziger). Clinical presentation Symptoms occur due to radicular compression or pathologic fracture (rare) from extensive bone erosion. Generally, patients present ...

Vascular Ehlers Danlos syndrome

Vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) or type IV Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS 4) is the most malignant form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. This form is often accompanied by neurovascular complications secondary to vessel dissections and/or aneurysms. Epidemiology Vascular EDS represents about 4% of...

Pulmonary capillaritis

Pulmonary capillaritis is a general term given to inflammation of the pulmonary capillaries. It is essentially a histopathological diagnosis 3. Pathology The underlying inflammation leads to the disruption alveolar-capillary basement membrane integrity with resultant flooding of the alveoli wi...

Superior epigastric artery

The superior epigastric artery is one of two terminal branches of the internal thoracic artery with the other being the musculophrenic artery. Gross anatomy Origin and course The superior epigastric artery originates at the level of the sixth or seventh costal cartilage. It descends to the a...

Posterior spinal arteries

The posterior spinal arteries are a pair of arteries that supply the respective ipsilateral grey and white posterior columns of the spinal cord. Gross anatomy The posterior spinal arteries arise from either the posterior inferior cerebellar or vertebral arteries (V3 or V4 segments) and run ...

Westermark sign

Westermark sign is a sign of pulmonary embolus seen on chest radiographs. It is one of several described signs of pulmonary embolus on chest radiographs. Pathology The theory behind the sign is either obstruction of the pulmonary artery or distal vasoconstriction in hypoxic lung 3. In one stu...

Subscapular artery

The subscapular artery is the largest branch of the axillary artery. Gross anatomy The subscapular artery originates from the medial surface of the third part of the axillary artery. It passes along the inferior border of the subscapularis muscle and it divides into two branches 1,2: Thoracod...

Lateral thoracic artery

The lateral thoracic artery is a branch of the second part of the axillary artery. Gross anatomy Origin and course The lateral thoracic artery originates from the medial surface of the axillary artery, posterior to the distal part of pectoralis minor. It courses inferomedially along the infe...

Subclavian artery stenosis

Subclavian artery stenosis refers to a narrowing of one or both of the subclavian arteries. Epidemiology The estimated in the general population as a whole is thought to be around 2-4%, while in those with peripheral vascular disease, it can be as high as 18% 1,4. Pathology It can arise of n...

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) is defined as that occurring distal to the ligament of Treitz (i.e. from the jejunum, ileum, colon, rectum or anus) and presenting as either hematochezia (bright red blood/clots or burgundy stools) or melena. Epidemiology The incidence of lower gastrointe...

Brachiocephalic trunk

The brachiocephalic trunk (BCT) (also known as the brachiocephalic artery, and previously as the innominate artery) is the first branch of the aortic arch and supplies the head, neck and right arm. Terminology Although sometimes described as such, the brachiocephalic trunk is not one of the gr...

Small saphenous vein

The small saphenous vein (SSV) forms part of the superficial venous drainage of the lower limb. Terminology Small saphenous vein is the preferred terminology over other terms such as short saphenous vein, external saphenous vein or lesser saphenous vein 5. Gross anatomy Origin and course T...

Great saphenous vein

The great saphenous vein (GSV) forms part of the superficial venous system of the lower limb. Terminology The great saphenous vein is the preferred term over other variants such as long saphenous vein (LSV), greater saphenous vein or internal saphenous vein 5. Gross anatomy Origin and cours...

Hemoptysis

Hemoptysis (plural: hemoptyses) refers to coughing up of blood. Generally, it appears bright red in color as opposed to blood from the gastrointestinal tract which appears dark red. It is considered an alarming sign of a serious underlying etiology. Terminology A variety of clinical classifica...

Fetal circulation

Fetal circulation differs from the adult circulation due to the presence of certain vessels and shunts. These shunts close after birth, and most of the fetal vessels are visible as remnants in the adult circulation. The function of these shunts is to direct oxygen-rich venous blood to the syst...

Posterior external jugular vein

The posterior external jugular vein is a tributary of the external jugular vein. Gross anatomy Origin and course Forms from the confluence of several superficial veins in the posterosuperior neck and posterior scalp. It passes superficially over the posterior triangle to drain into the extern...

Anterior jugular vein

The anterior jugular vein is a paired tributary of the external jugular vein. Gross anatomy Location It arises beneath the chin in the region of the hyoid bone or suprahyoid neck. Origin and course The anterior jugular vein has its origin as the confluence of several small superficial subma...

Splenial artery

The splenial artery (or posterior pericallosal artery) arises most commonly from the parieto-occipital branch of the posterior cerebral artery. It represents an important potential collateral supply from the posterior to anterior cerebral arteries via the pericallosal artery. When a sizable dire...

Anterior choroidal artery syndrome

Anterior choroidal artery syndrome is a rare entity characterized by the triad of: hemiplegia hemianaesthesia contralateral hemianopia This occurs as a result of cerebral infarction in the anterior choroidal artery territory. The syndrome may also be associated with neuropsychological disor...

Anterior choroidal artery

The anterior choroidal artery (AChA) supplies several crucial anatomical structures of the brain important for vision and motor control. Identification of AChA is important because of its strategic and extensive area of supply as well as large variations in the territorial distribution. Gross a...

Callosomarginal artery

The callosomarginal artery, also known as median artery of corpus callosum, is the largest branch of the pericallosal artery. It courses within or posterior to the cingulate sulcus, in parallel orientation to the pericallosal artery. It divides to give two or more cortical branches to supply the...

Thalamostriate veins

Thalamostriate veins are formed by the joining of anterior caudate vein and the vein of stria terminalis. They join the septal veins and form internal cerebral veins. Related pathology The thalamostriate veins can be compressed in preterm neonates who have had germinal matrix hemorrhage. This ...

Septal cerebral veins

Septal cerebral veins originate at the lateral aspect of the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles then pass medially, inferior to the genu of the corpus callosum. They then turn backwards and traverse along the septum pellucidum and enter the internal cerebral vein behind the foramen of Monr...

Cerebral veins

The cerebral veins drain the brain parenchyma and are located in the subarachnoid space. They pierce the meninges and drain further into the cranial venous sinuses. The cerebral veins lack muscular tissue and valves. The cerebral venous system can be divided into: superficial (cortical) cerebr...

Cerebrofacial arteriovenous metameric syndrome

Cerebrofacial arteriovenous metameric syndrome (CAMS) encompasses maxillofacial/intracranial vascular malformation complexes including Wyburn-Mason Syndrome and Sturge-Weber syndrome 1-4. Three types are described depending on location 2,6: CAMS I: medial prosencephalic group with involvement o...

Aortic pseudoaneurysm

Aortic pseudoaneurysm typically occurs as a result of trauma +/- intervention, and is considered a subset of traumatic aortic injury in the majority of cases. They can be acute or chronic. Pathology Aortic pseudoaneurysms are contained ruptures of the aorta in which the majority of the aortic ...

Bronchial vein

The bronchial veins are counterparts to the bronchial arteries and drain the bronchi, hilar structures and the mid-portion of the esophagus. Gross anatomy There is typically a single bronchial vein at each hilum, formed from the superficial bronchial veins with deep bronchial veins draining in...

Superior thoracic aperture

The superior thoracic aperture, also known as the thoracic inlet or outlet, connects the root of the neck with the thorax. Gross anatomy The superior thoracic aperture is kidney-shaped and lies in an oblique transverse plane, tilted anteroinferiorly to posterosuperiorly. It is roughly 10 cm i...

Yellow nail syndrome

The yellow nail syndrome (YNS) is a rare disorder principally affecting the lymphatic system. It is characterized by a clinical triad: nail discolouration (chromonychia): yellow to dark green slow-growing dystrophic nails (scleronychia) 9 lymphedema (peripheral/primary) pulmonary disease: se...

Sildenafil citrate-induced penile Doppler

In the past 15 years sildenafil citrate-induced penile Doppler has emerged as a technique for evaluating erectile dysfunction. It has greater patient acceptability than the usual papaverine-induced color Doppler and is safer. Sildenafil citrate is a popular vasodilator drug used in treatment of...

Pulmonary veins

The pulmonary veins drain oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. A small amount of blood is also drained from the lungs by the bronchial veins. Gross anatomy There are typically four pulmonary veins, two draining each lung: right superior: drains the right upper and middle lobes ...

Intratesticular varicocele

Intratesticular varicocele is a rare entity, occurring in ~2% of symptomatic population. Pathology It is defined as dilated intratesticular veins seen in relation to the mediastinum testis and extending peripherally. It is usually seen in the presence of ipsilateral extratesticular varicocele....

Splenic vein

The splenic vein drains the spleen, part of the pancreas, and part of the stomach. Gross anatomy Origin and course The splenic vein is formed by splenic tributaries emerging at the splenic hilum in the splenorenal ligament at the tip of the tail of pancreas. It runs in the splenorenal ligame...

Gastroduodenal artery

The gastroduodenal artery (GDA) is a terminal branch of the common hepatic artery which mainly supplies the pylorus of the stomach, proximal duodenum, and the head of the pancreas. Due to its proximity to the posterior wall of the first part of the duodenum, the gastroduodenal artery is one of t...

Hepatic artery proper

The hepatic artery proper, also known as the proper hepatic artery (PHA), is the continuation of the common hepatic artery after it gives off the gastroduodenal artery. Just prior to the porta hepatis it divides into the left and right hepatic arteries. Gross anatomy Course The hepatic artery...

Central venous catheter

Central venous catheters (CVC), also known as central venous lines (CVL), refer to a wide range of catheters that are inserted so that their distal tips lie in a central vein. Central venous access devices can broadly be divided into four categories. They may be inserted by medical, surgical, an...

Superior mesenteric vein

The superior mesenteric vein (SMV) accompanies the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and drains the midgut to the portal venous system. Gross anatomy Origin and course Mesenteric venous arcades, which accompany the arteries, unite to form the jejunal and ileal veins in the small bowel mesenter...

Appendicular artery

The appendicular artery is a branch of the ileal or posterior cecal branch of the ileocolic artery, which is from the superior mesenteric artery. It courses posteriorly to the terminal ileum in the free wall of the mesoappendix to supply the appendix.

Middle colic artery

The middle colic artery is a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and supplies the marginal artery. Course The middle colic artery passes in the layers of the transverse mesocolon to the transverse colon and divides into right and left branches right branch supplies the right portio...

Right colic artery

The right colic artery may arise directly from the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) but often arises from a common trunk with the ileocolic artery or middle colic artery. It courses to the right to the ascending colon and divides into a descending branch that supplies the lower portion of the a...

Ileocolic artery

The ileocolic artery is a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) that runs obliquely to the ileocecal junction. It divides into an ileal branch that supplies the terminal ileum and anastomoses with the terminal SMA and a colic branch. It also gives off anterior and posterior cecal arteri...

Jejunal and ileal branches of the superior mesenteric artery

The jejunal and ileal branches of the superior mesenteric artery are variable in number. They pass in the two layers of the mesentery to the jejunum and ileum and progressively divide and join in a series of anastomosing arcades. From the arcades, straight arteries (also known as the vasa recta...

Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery

The inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery is the first branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA). It usually arises at the inferior border of the pancreas or with the first jejunal artery as part of the pancreaticoduodenojejunal trunk. It anastomoses with branches of the superior pancreati...

Spinal cord blood supply

The spinal cord blood supply is a complex arrangement of arterial and venous plexuses. Arterial supply The spinal cord receives its blood supply by contributions from both longitudinal and reinforced by segmental (aka radiculomedullary) arteries. Longitudinally, it receives supply from thre...

Varicocele grading on color Doppler

Varicocele grading on color Doppler can be done variably. The most elaborate and widely-accepted grading was given by Sarteschi, as below. For a general discussion of this condition refer to the article: varicocele. Evaluation baseline greyscale study in supine position and measure the diame...

Superior mediastinum

The superior mediastinum is an artificially divided wedge-shaped compartment of the mediastinum located between the thoracic plane inferiorly and the thoracic inlet superiorly. The inferior mediastinum, comprising of the anterior, middle, and posterior parts, lies inferiorly. Gross anatomy Bou...

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