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Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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Trochlear depth

Trochlear depth (TD) measures the depth of the trochlear groove in relation to the femoral condyles. Usage Trochlear depth is used for the assessment of trochlear dysplasia, a dysplastic deformity of the femoral head, which is a known risk factor for patellofemoral instability 1-6. A review o...

Lateral trochlear inclination

Lateral trochlear inclination (LTI) is the inclination angle between the femoral trochlea and a posterior condylar tangential line 1. Usage The lateral trochlear inclination angle is used in the assessment of trochlear dysplasia, a dysplastic deformity of the distal femur, which is a known ris...

Radiotracers for SPECT brain imaging

Radiotracers for SPECT brain imaging are divided into two classes: diffusible and not-diffusible radiotracers; this distinction lies in the ability (or not) to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The not-diffusible radiotracers - composed of ions or polar molecules - are unable to cross the li...

Wrist radiograph (checklist)

The wrist radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Wrist ...

Hand radiograph (checklist)

The hand radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Hand ra...

Lumbar spine radiograph (checklist)

The lumbar spine checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph The lumbar...

Thoracic spine radiograph (checklist)

The thoracic spine checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph These ra...

Cervical spine radiograph (checklist)

The cervical spine checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Although...

Medial clear space (ankle)

The medial clear space is a radiographic measurement that may be useful in the diagnosis of ankle instability, syndesmotic injuries and ankle fractures 5. Usage The medial clear space is used in the prediction of deltoid ligament injury 1 and in conjunction with the tibiofibular clear space th...

Tibiofibular overlap

The tibiofibular overlap (TFO) is the overlapping area between the anterior distal tibial prominence and the medial edge of the distal fibula 1-3. Usage Together with the tibiofibular clear space (TFCS) and the medial clear space, the tibiofibular overlap space has been used in the diagnosis a...

Tibiofibular clear space

The tibiofibular clear space is a radiographic measure and defined as the space between the groove of the distal tibial prominence and the medial margin of the distal fibula 1-3. Usage Together with the tibiofibular overlap and the medial clear space, the tibiofibular clear space has been used...

Shoulder radiograph (checklist)

The shoulder radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Sho...

First metatarsophalangeal angle

The first metatarsophalangeal angle, also known as hallux valgus angle (HVA) or hallux abductus angle, is a measurement used to assess the presence and severity of the alignment of the first metatarsophalangeal joint on a weight-bearing dorsoplantar radiograph of the foot. Measurement The angl...

Foot radiograph (checklist)

The foot radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Foot ra...

Pelvic radiograph (checklist)

The pelvic radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Plain radiograph ...

Knee radiograph (checklist)

The knee radiograph checklist is just one of the many pathology checklists that can be used when reporting to ensure that you always actively exclude pathology that is commonly missed; this is particularly helpful in the examination setting, e.g. the FRCR 2B rapid-reporting. Radiograph Knee ra...

Calcium volume score

The calcium volume score is a measure to quantify and calculate coronary artery calcium 1-3. Its calculation includes all voxels with a Hounsfield attenuation >130 and this is done by multiplying the volume of each voxel, determined by the area and the slice thickness with the number of voxels ...

Sulcus angle (knee)

The sulcus angle is useful in the assessment of patellofemoral instability and trochlear dysplasia. Measurement The angle is formed by the trochlear opening of the knee, measuring the angle between the medial and lateral facets. Classically described in axial x-rays of the knee performed at 3...

Microvascular decompression

Microvascular decompression is a surgical procedure for cranial nerve compression syndrome, most often carried out for trigeminal neuralgia, or less frequently hemifacial spasm and glossopharyngeal neuralgia. It is usually carried out via a retrosigmoid craniotomy. The culprit blood vessel, eit...

Sternoclavicular joint injection (technique)

Sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) injections under image guidance ensure precise delivery of an injectate into the joint and importantly that needle depth is under direct visualization. Indications pain arthropathy, e.g. osteoarthritis diagnostic injection Contraindications Absolute anaphyla...

Elbow injection (disambiguation)

Elbow injection usually refers to an elbow joint injection, but especially to patients, it can be a term used referring to other procedures which include: common extensor origin microtenotomy common flexor origin microtenotomy distal biceps tendon sheath injection elbow joint inject...

Foot injection (disambiguation)

Foot injection is a non-specific term, often used by patients, in reference to tarsal or metatarsal joint injections, and to other injections which include: calcaneocuboid joint injection metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) injection naviculocuneiform joint injection plantar fascia mi...

Knee injection (disambiguation)

Knee injection is a general term and can be made in reference, especially by patients, to multiple procedures which include: common peroneal (fibular) nerve injection knee joint injection MRI arthrogram CT arthrogram anesthetic arthrogram patella tendon microtenotomy ...

Long head of biceps brachii tendon sheath injection (technique)

Long head of biceps brachii (LHB) tendon sheath injections under ultrasound guidance ensure accurate delivery of injectate, which is important as these injections are often performed for diagnostic purposes. Indications pain diagnostic injection alternative access to the glenohumer...

Deep endometriosis (transvaginal ultrasound)

Transvaginal ultrasound (TV) for deep endometriosis is a specialized ultrasound technique used for the detection of deep endometriosis (DE). It differs from a traditional pelvic ultrasound in that the scan is extended beyond the uterus and ovaries to assess the anterior and posterior pelvic comp...

Diastolic dysfunction assessment (echocardiography)

According to the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging, diastolic dysfunction assessment on echocardiography is divided into two different groups based on left ventricular systolic function. Normal left ventricular systolic function There ...

Reporting and Data Systems (disambiguation)

In recent years there has been a proliferation of Reporting and Data Systems (RADS), which have been proposed - and in many cases widely adopted - as standardized systems for the reporting of imaging of various body organs, often, but certainly not always, with a focus on oncological disease 2. ...

Transmission (epidemiology)

Transmission, in the context of infectious disease, implies the passing of a pathogen from one host or reservoir of the pathogen to a new susceptible host. The term transmission is also used for the transfer of genes in genetic diseases. Instances of transmission can be divided into direct or i...

CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation (approach)

CT liver volumetry in living donor liver transplantation is essential imaging studies in preoperative assessment. Liver volumetry is performed for the donor liver to calculate the graft volume and remnant liver volume. Preoperative measurement of liver volume is important to avoid graft mismatc...

Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score

The Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score (originally called the Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score) was developed as a clinical scoring system to provide an overview of where any critically ill patient was with regards to the sequence of organ system failure. It was...

Interpeduncular angle

The interpeduncular angle is defined as the angle formed by the posterior half of the cerebral peduncles on axial images. The interpeduncular angle has been proposed as a sensitive and specific measure of intracranial hypotension (reduced) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) (increased)1,2....

Peritoneal thickening

Peritoneal thickening is a descriptive term given to describe any form of thickening of the peritoneum. It can occur with both benign and malignant peritoneal disease. It can be classified into various subtypes based on its morphology: smooth peritoneal thickening peritonitis peritoneal car...

Myocardial mapping

Myocardial mapping or parametric mapping of the heart is one of various magnetic resonance imaging techniques, which has evolved and been increasingly used in the last decade for non-invasive tissue characterization of the myocardium 1-5. Unlike normal T1-, T2- or T2*- images, parametric mapping...

Head ultrasound

Head ultrasound (HUS), also called cranial ultrasound (CUS), is obtained for the diagnosis and follow-up of premature and sick neonates. Advantages Head ultrasound has the advantages of: accessibility mobility, i.e. bedside scanning at the NICU and neonatal ward requiring no sedation enabl...

Lobectomy (lung)

A lobectomy (plural: lobectomies) is the complete resection of one lobe of the lung and is the commonest lung surgery performed for bronchogenic carcinoma. Technique A posterolateral thoracotomy is the commonest approach for the resection of lung malignancies. For other surgical approaches for...

Pain rating scales

There are a number of pain rating scales used by clinicians and researchers to gauge the severity of patients' pain. Commonly used methods: pain numeric rating scale (NRS/NPRS) visual analog scale (VAS) verbal rating scale (VRS) faces pain scale-revised (FPS-R) Pain numeric rating scale Th...

Paragonimiasis

Paragonimiasis is a disease caused by several species of the trematode genus Paragonimus. More than 50 different species of Paragonimus have been described in Asia, Africa, and the Americas and of those nine species infecting humans. The most important species is Paragonimus Westermani, which ...

Volume doubling time

The volume doubling time (VDT) is an important volumetric parameter primarily used in lung cancer screening and follow-up by chest CT. Volume doubling time is defined as the time required for a growing nodule to double its volume. A longer VDT suggests a more benign course, whilst a short VDT is...

Weight loss

A clinical presentation of weight loss is extremely common and often a source of marked anxiety for the patient. The commonest cause of unintentional weight loss (UWI) is gastrointestinal tract disease, and not malignancy. Terminology The published literature lacks a consistent definition of w...

Gallbladder wall thickening

Thickening of the gallbladder wall, usually considered >3 mm, is a non-specific sign of various conditions. Pathology Gallbladder wall thickening can be caused by inflammatory, benign, and malignant etiologies. Pseudothickening caused by the normal postprandial state of the contracted gallblad...

MRI targeted prostate biopsy

MRI targeted prostate biopsy refers to an imaging targeted technique rather than the traditional systematic approach of a prostate biopsy after respective imaging with multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the prostate. As a consequence of the recent advances of multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the pros...

Interzygomatic line

The interzygomatic line is a commonly used reference standard for the evaluation of proptosis due to various etiologies on CT/MRI scans. Technique A horizontal line should be drawn between the most anterior parts of the zygomatic bones in the axial plane. The normal distance of the interzygom...

On-track and off-track shoulder lesions

Bipolar shoulder lesions of anterior glenohumeral dislocations (i.e. combined bony Bankart lesions and Hill-Sachs defects) put patients at increased risk of Hill-Sachs engagement or recurrent instability. Determining if the Hill-Sachs defects are on-track or off-track can help guide management, ...

Mulder sign

Mulder sign is a clinical test used to examine causes of metatarsalgia associated with Morton neuroma. It has high specificity (100%) but relatively low sensitivity (62%) 2. See the ultrasound correlate described separately: sonographic Mulder sign. Technique With one hand, clasp the metatarsa...

Sonographic Mulder sign

The sonographic Mulder sign is the ultrasound correlate of the clinical Mulder sign during examination of the forefoot to investigate causes of metatarsalgia associated with Morton neuroma 1. The intermetatarsal space is predominantly composed of fat inferiorly and also contains the neurovascula...

Incidental thyroid nodule

Incidental thyroid nodules, sometimes called thyroid incidentalomas, are discrete lesions in the thyroid gland found on cross-sectional imaging performed for indications other than thyroid evaluation. They are common but occasionally represent thyroid cancer 1. This article discusses the epidemi...

Gold standard

The gold standard (occasionally, erroneously, called the golden standard) is the term used in medicine for the test (imaging, blood test, biopsy, etc.) that is felt to be the current best for diagnosis of a particular condition. The gold standard for any specific disease is not set in stone and ...

Hair artifact

Hair artifact and hair-product artifacts are artifacts produced by the presence of the patient's hair, hair accessories (e.g. hair clip) and hair products (e.g. shampoo) within the field of view during acquisition of an image, which can affect all modalities to varying degrees. For example, in m...

Clothing artifact

Clothing artifacts, like jewelry artifacts, are a regular feature on imaging examinations, especially plain radiographs, but in general are recognized for what they are, either at the time the image is taken by the radiographer, or later by the reporting radiologist. The radiographer will often ...

Lipoma vs well-differentiated liposarcoma

There a number of features that can help distinguish between lipoma and well-differentiated liposarcoma. This article relates to superficial well-differentiated liposarcomas that typically occur in the extremities, also known as atypical lipomatous tumors, and not retroperitoneal liposarcoma. E...

Alpha angle (cam morphology)

The alpha angle is a radiological measurement proposed for the detection of cam morphology, which is sometimes associated with femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Terminology The term alpha angle is also used in a separate and unrelated context in the evaluation of developmental dysplasia of ...

Naming of organisms

Occasionally, we will refer to lifeforms in an article or case, and we adhere to standard scientific convention when it comes to naming of organisms, as set down by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) 1. As per the standard binomial system, the genus and species of the...

McMurray test

The McMurray test is used to assess the presence of meniscal tears within the knee. Background Clinical tests used for the detection of meniscal tears provide varying levels of diagnostic parameters including sensitivity and specificity. MRI is considered the most accurate diagnostic tool for ...

HRCT chest (protocol)

High-resolution CT (HRCT) of the chest, also referred to as HRCT chest or HRCT of the lungs, refers to a CT technique in which thin-slice chest images are obtained and post-processed in a high-spatial-frequency reconstruction algorithm. This technique obtains images with exquisite lung detail, w...

CT colonography - pitfalls

The interpretation of CT colonography can sometimes be difficult because of pitfalls, which may be a source of false negative and false positive findings. When suboptimal CT colonography techniques are applied, the number and severity of interpretive pitfalls can rapidly multiply. However, when ...

Breast mass

Breast masses are three-dimensional space-occupying lesions in the breasts. This article provides an overview of the standard BI-RADS terminology used to describe breast masses in radiology reports and other reporting suggestions. Radiographic features Breast masses are described differently b...

Fluid collection

A fluid collection (often expressed in the medical vernacular as a collection) is a non-specific term used in radiology to refer to any loculation of liquid in the body, usually within a pre-existing anatomical space/potential space e.g. peritoneal, pleural, subdural, etc. The term is deliberate...

Hickam's dictum

Hickam's dictum is usually stated as "patients can have as many diseases as they damn (or darn) well please". This aphorism has been attributed to John Hickam (1914-1970) an American physician, who was Chair of the Department of Medicine at the University of Indiana 1. The importance of this d...

Saint's triad

Saint's triad is the concurrence of hiatus hernia, cholelithiasis and colonic diverticulosis. It was named after the British-South African general surgeon, Charles Frederick Morris Saint (1886–1973) 2. Although it was first published in 1948 by C J B Muller, later Head of the Department of Radio...

Approach to shock (echocardiography)

An organized approach to shock is critical in the management of these often very sick patients. Shock - of any form - manifests as inadequate tissue perfusion, the end-point of which is multisystem organ failure and death. Echocardiography at the point-of-care is fast, non-invasive, and often p...

Normal pulmonary venous Doppler

Normal pulmonary venous blood flow in the pulmonary veins may be investigated during echocardiography with spectral Doppler analysis. Perturbations in the normal pulmonary venous waveform may indicate the presence of diastolic dysfunction and elevated filling pressures in the left atrium and ven...

Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in echocardiography (differential)

Left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction describes a state in which the egress of blood from the left ventricle to the systemic circulation is impeded as it traverses the anatomic LVOT to the aortic arch. Echocardiography, particularly with the use of spectral Doppler, may be used to de...

Cervical lymph node metastasis (radiologic criteria)

Cervical lymph node metastases refer to regional nodal involvement by cancer in the head and neck, most commonly due to squamous cell carcinoma originating from the aerodigestive tract or skin. Radiologic detection of cervical lymph node metastases is important for clinical staging and planning ...

Congenital heart disease in echocardiography (an approach)

The diagnosis of congenital heart disease in echocardiography is outside the scope of basic echocardiography, however, several common features may be recognized at the point of care which allow for initial stablization and management before a complete echocardiography exam may be performed. In ...

Volar tilt

Volar tilt, or palmar tilt, is an important measurement in the evaluation of distal radius fractures and radial deformities. Measurement The volar tilt is assessed on the lateral radiograph of the wrist, it corresponds to the angle formed by a line drawn perpendicular to the axis of the radial...

Coracohumeral interval

The coracohumeral interval is usually measured on axial or oblique sagittal CT or MRI and normally measures between 7-11 mm. A measurement <6 mm is always considered abnormal 1.

Diastolic dysfunction (point of care ultrasound)

Assessment for diastolic dysfunction is an advanced application of point-of-care ultrasonography, most commonly used as a supplemental non-invasive estimate of left atrial pressure in hemodynamically complex patients 1. Of note, this article will discuss the simplified, binary approach used in c...

Videofluoroscopic swallow study

Videofluoroscopic swallow studies (also often called modified barium swallow studies) are a variation on traditional barium swallow studies. Although typical barium swallow studies / esophagrams evaluate the pharynx, the goal in these studies is to even more closely evaluate the oral cavity, pha...

Red and yellow flags for guiding imaging of lower back pain

Lower back pain (also known as lumbago) is very common and is often referred for imaging. However, the vast majority of cases are due to benign self-limiting causes which do not require imaging and resolve with conservative measures. Numerous authors have described various methods for supporting...

Tracheal bifurcation angle

The tracheal bifurcation angle can have a wide range of normal values in patients and can vary significantly in serial radiographs. It is of poor diagnostic value due to the lack of sensitivity and specificity in identifying the underlying pathology. Terminology The interbronchial angle is th...

Transthoracic echocardiography

Standard transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is the most commonly performed form of echocardiography. It consists of five standardized windows which are obtained in a standardized sequence 1. Obtaining views from the left parasternal, apical, subcostal, and suprasternal notch windows is mandato...

Mass of the inguinal region (differential)

The differential diagnosis of a mass in the inguinal region includes: inguinal hernia femoral hernia hydrocele of the canal of Nuck spermatic cord hydrocele lymphadenopathy or necrotic lymph node aneurysm or pseudoaneurysm of the femoral artery iliopectineal bursa abscess hematoma lymp...

Pleural effusion volume (ultrasound)

Measurement of a pleural effusion volume with point-of-care ultrasonography may be a useful tool for intensivists and is an active area of research in critical care 7. In controlled settings ultrasound may detect constitutive pleural fluid, can reliably detect effusions >20 mL in clinical setti...

Left ventricular ejection fraction (echocardiography)

Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is a surrogate for left ventricular global systolic function, defined as the left ventricular stroke volume divided by the end-diastolic volume. Terminology Point-of-care echocardiography protocols typically use a semi-quantitative approach in defining...

Complications of sleeve gastrectomy

Complications of sleeve gastrectomy are often evaluated by imaging. For details about the surgical procedure, please see the parental article on sleeve gastrectomy. Complications Postoperative complications can be classified by etiology or temporality. Early complications staple line...

Interscalene brachial plexus block

An interscalene brachial plexus block is indicated for procedures involving the shoulder and upper arm. History Ultrasound-guided brachial plexus nerve blocks entered the literature in 1989, when Ting et al. detailed their success with axillary nerve blocks in 10 patients 3. Indications r...

Extrusion index

The extrusion index is a radiographic measurement of femoral head bony coverage by the acetabulum. It is useful in assessing for developmental dysplasia of the hip as well as femoroacetabular impingement. Measurement It is calculated by dividing the horizontal distance of the lateral femoral h...

Point-of-care ultrasound (curriculum)

The point-of-care ultrasound (PoCUS) curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core applications of ultrasonography in a point-of-care setting. Point-of-care ultrasound refers to ultrasonography which may be simultaneously performed,...

Focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography

FATE (focus‐assessed transthoracic echocardiography) is a goal-directed protocol used in critical care for indications such as hemodynamic instability, shock, and pulseless electrical activity (PEA) arrest 1. The protocol is designed as a series of questions as follows: does the left ventri...

Aortic pseudoaneurysm vs ductus diverticulum

Differentiation of aortic pseudoaneurysm from ductus diverticulum is critical, particularly in the trauma setting. A traumatic aortic pseudoaneurysm is a surgical emergency whereas a ductus diverticulum is a normal anatomic variant. The following are differentiating features: Aortic pseudoaneu...

Ankle impingement syndromes

There are several ankle impingement syndromes. They are characterized by a limited range of motion and pain on attempting specific movements about the joint and often in a load-bearing position. They have variable etiology and pathogenesis. They are best classified according to location. The ke...

Transverse view of abdomen

A transverse abdominal view is one of the standard views on fetal echocardiography and is very useful for assessing situs abnormalities. In case of situs solitus (normal situs), the stomach is on the left and liver on the right. The descending aorta lies anterior and to the left of the spine whi...

Review areas on chest radiograph

Review areas on a chest radiograph are common areas for missed findings, and special attention should be paid to them: lung apices: masses (e.g. Pancoast tumor), pneumothorax behind the heart: consolidation, masses, hiatus hernia 2 below the diaphragm: free gas, lines and tubes (e.g. nasogast...

Assessment of chest x-ray technical adequacy (approach)

Described below are some points on an approach to the assessment of the chest x-ray technical adequacy. Rarely, a technically inadequate chest x-ray will prohibit diagnostic interpretation but knowledge of the limitations will impact on diagnostic confidence. Exposure/penetration assessed by ...

Assessment of bones and soft tissue on chest x-ray

Described below are points to consider on assessment of bones and soft tissue on chest x-ray. ribs rib fractures lesions (most commonly metastases): may appear as lucent and/or sclerotic; inverting contrast may help in identification previous surgery, e.g. thoracotomy with rib resection ve...

Assessment of lungs, pleura and airways on chest x-ray (approach)

Described below is one approach to the assessment of airways, lungs and pleura on chest x-ray. Start by assessing the tracheal air column, followed by the lungs and finally the pleural spaces. Tracheobronchial tree assess position, should be central and deviation can be due to positive mass ...

Assessment of pulmonary hila on chest x-ray (approach)

The assessment of the pulmonary hila on chest x-ray is important for detecting potential mediastinal and lung pathology. Several features of the hilum and hilar point can be assessed: shape normally appear as K or C-shapes on either side contents: pulmonary arteries and veins, bronchi, lymph...

Assessment of cardiomediastinal contours on chest x-ray (approach)

Described below is one approach to systematic assessment and associated pathology of the cardiomediastinal contours on chest x-ray. Mediastinum size: widened mediastinum can be seen in aortic dissection, traumatic aortic injury, vascular ectasia abnormal contour, e.g. lymphadenopathy, anteri...

Systematic chest radiograph assessment (approach)

One approach to a systematic chest radiograph assessment is as follows: projection assessment of the technical adequacy tubes and lines cardiomediastinal contours hila airways, lungs and pleura bones and soft tissue review areas Following a systematic approach on every chest radiograph ...

Sigmoid volvulus vs cecal volvulus

The following points may be helpful to distinguish between sigmoid volvulus and cecal volvulus on plain film. Sigmoid volvulus arises in the pelvis (left lower quadrant) extends towards the right upper quadrant ahaustral in appearance sigmoid volvulus causes obstruction of the distal large ...

Esophageal intubation

Esophageal intubation refers to the incorrect placement of an endotracheal tube in the esophagus. Within minutes its consequences can be catastrophic with the seriousness of its outcome depending largely on the timeliness of its diagnosis. Epidemiology Accidental esophageal intubation can happ...

Bedside lung ultrasound in emergency (approach)

Bedside lung ultrasound in emergency (BLUE) is a basic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed for undifferentiated respiratory failure at the bedside, immediately after the physical examination, and before echocardiography. The protocol is simple and dichotomous, and takes fewer...

Pathognomonic

The term pathognomonic in radiology, as well as clinical medicine in general, refers to a finding or a sign that is only found in a single specific condition or specific group of conditions, i.e. the finding has 100% specificity. Thus by implication, a pathognomonic finding cannot and does not h...

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