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Skeletal survey

A skeletal survey is a series of radiographs, performed systematically to cover the entire skeleton or the anatomic regions appropriate for the clinical indications. Its objective is to accurately identify focal and diffuse abnormalities of the skeleton and to differentiate them from developmen...

Shoulder radiograph (an approach)

Shoulder radiographs are common films to see in the Emergency Department, especially during the weekend after sporting events. Systematic review Choosing a search strategy and utilizing it consistently is a helpful method to overcome common errors seen in diagnostic radiology. The order in whi...

Step-oblique mammography

Step-oblique mammography is an accurate technique for determining whether a mammographic finding visible on multiple images on only one projection (but not elucidated using standard additional mammographic projections) represents a summation artifact or a true mass and for precisely localizing t...

Triangulation

Triangulation is a technique for localizing lesions seen on at least two views on 2D mammography. Technique hang the CC, MLO, and 90° lateral films (in that order) on the view box the nipple on each film must be at the same level use a ruler and place one end over the lesion on the 90° later...

Wrist radiograph (an approach)

Wrist radiographs are ubiquitous on any night of the week in emergency departments, especially when pavements are icy! Systematic review Choosing a search strategy and utilizing it consistently is a helpful method to overcome common errors seen in diagnostic radiology. The order in which you ...

Pediatric elbow radiograph (an approach)

Pediatric elbow radiographs are commonly encountered in the emergency department and, when approached in a systematic fashion, are not as difficult to interpret as most people think! Systematic review Ossification Check that the ossification centers are present and in the correct position. Th...

Abnormal bowel wall attenuation patterns

Abnormal bowel wall attenuation patterns on CT scan can be grouped under five categories: white enhancement gray enhancement water halo sign fat halo sign black attenuation The first three patterns are seen on contrast studies. White enhancement It is defined as uniform enhancement of th...

Bronchogenic cyst vs esophageal duplication cyst

Bronchogenic cysts and esophageal duplication cysts are embryological foregut duplication cysts and are also differential diagnoses for a cystic mediastinal mass. Differences Symptoms asymptomatic bronchogenic cyst symptomatic esophageal cyst in the case of peptic ulceration Plain radiograp...

Pancreatic ultrasound

Pancreatic ultrasound can be used to assess for pancreatic malignancy, pancreatitis and its complications, as well as for other pancreatic pathology. Preparation Fast the patient to reduce interference from overlying bowel gas, which may otherwise make visualization difficult. Scanning techni...

Tuberculosis (musculoskeletal manifestations)

Musculoskeletal tuberculosis is always secondary to a primary lesion in the lung. Epidemiology The prevalence of the disease is around 30 million globally and 1-3% of the 30 million have involvement of their bones and/or joints. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is responsible for almost all of the c...

Evaluation of recurrent bone tumors

Recurrent bone tumors are a common complication post curettage or resection. Radiographic features Radiographs taken pre- and postoperatively are sufficient for evaluation of recurrence based on the following features: osteolytic changes cortical changes matrix mineralization (characteristi...

Hibbs angle

The Hibbs angle, a.k.a. lateral calcaneo-first metatarsal angle, has been used to identify the apex of deformity in patients with pes cavus on lateral weight-bearing radiographs. Measurement The Hibbs angle is formed by the lines running along the axes of the calcaneus and the first metatarsal...

Low grade central osteosarcoma

Low-grade central osteosarcomas (LGCOS) or well-differentiated intramedullary osteosarcomas are low-grade malignant bone-forming tumors typically arising within the intramedullary cavity of bone. Epidemiology Low-grade central osteosarcomas are uncommon and account for 1-2% of all osteosarcoma...

Hemorrhagic intracranial tumors

Various types of brain tumors may cause hemorrhage. Increased tumor vascularization with dilated, thin-walled vessels and tumor necrosis are the most important mechanisms of hemorrhage. The list includes: glioblastoma pituitary adenoma ependymoma central neurocytoma choroid plexus carcinoma...

Computed tomography of the chest

Computed tomography (CT) of the chest is a cross-sectional evaluation of the heart, airways, lungs, mediastinum, and associated bones and soft tissues. Two key methods of image acquisition include: standard CT with 5 mm slice thickness for mediastinum and gross evaluation of lungs high-resolu...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules

Diffuse pulmonary nodules are usually seen as multiple pulmonary nodular opacifications on a HRCT chest scan. They can signify disease processes affecting either the interstitium or the airspace. They can range from a few millimeters to up to 1 cm and when very small and numerous there can be so...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules (differential diagnosis)

A number of differentials must be kept in mind while approaching diffuse or multiple pulmonary nodules. Interpretation is easier if nodules are the only abnormality. Differential diagnosis These differentials can be narrowed down based on several criteria: Based on appearance miliary nodule...

Retained barium in appendix

Retained barium in appendix refers to the presence of barium in appendix beyond 72 hours from the start of procedure. Proposed significance Previously used as a sign of appendicitis. Actual significance Retained barium outlining the appendiceal lumen allows evaluation of its width and contou...

Urethrography

Urethrography refers to the radiographic study of the urethra using iodinated contrast media and is generally carried out in males. Terminology When the urethra is studied with instillation of contrast into the distal/anterior urethra it has been referred to as: retrograde urethrography (RUG)...

Digastric line

The digastric line, also known as the biventer line, has been described and used to evaluate basilar invagination on frontal skull plain film and coronal CT images. The digastric line is drawn between right and left digastric grooves, which are located medial to the mastoid apices. These are co...

Osteolytic lesions with septations and trabeculations (differential)

Differential diagnosis of lytic bone lesions with septations and trabeculations include 1: benign lesions unicameral bone cyst aneurysmal bone cyst giant cell tumor non-ossifying fibroma intraosseous lipoma fibrous dysplasia Brown tumor ameloblastoma adamantinoma haemophilic pseudotum...

Conditions involving the nipple-areolar complex

The nipple areolar complex is a major anatomic landmark of the breast. It may be affected by variation in its embryological development, breast maturation and also by other benign and malignant conditions. Variant anatomy amazia polythelia nipple retraction or inversion enlarged nipple Ben...

Aortic nipple

An aortic nipple is seen in about 10% of PA chest x-rays on the lateral surface of the aortic arch/aortic knob. It represents the left superior intercostal vein. When prominent, superior vena cava obstruction should be considered as the left superior intercostal vein serves as a collateral path...

Voiding cystourethrography

Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG), also known as a micturating cystourethrography (MCU), is a fluoroscopic study of the lower urinary tract in which contrast is introduced into the bladder via a catheter. The purpose of the examination is to assess the bladder, urethra, postoperative anatomy an...

Neonatal pneumothorax

Neonatal pneumothorax describes pneumothoraces occurring in neonates. It is a life-threatening condition, associated with high morbidity and mortality. The diagnosis is a challenge especially when the amount of air is small and may accumulate along the anterior or medial pleural space. Epidemio...

Subcutaneous calcification (differential)

Subcutaneous calcification can be associated with a number of disorders. The list includes: dermatomyositis Ehlers-Danlos syndrome pseudoxanthoma elasticum basal cell nevus syndrome subcutaneous lipodystrophy venous thrombosis as a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus varicose v...

Monoarticular arthropathy

Monoarticular arthropathy can result from a number of causes: Commonest 2: gout (15-27%) septic arthritis (8-27%) osteoarthritis (5-17%) rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (11-16%) Less common 2: traumatic arthritis HADD (hydroxyapatite deposition disease) reactive arthritis 2 avascular necrosi...

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI)

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation or replacement (TAVI/TAVR) is a technique to replace the aortic valve through a transvascular or transapical approach. Compared to traditional open aortic valve replacement with sternotomy and a heart-lung bypass machine, the TAVI technique is less invasiv...

Cardiac CT

Computed tomography of the heart or cardiac CT is routinely performed to gain knowledge about cardiac or coronary anatomy, to detect or diagnose coronary artery disease (CAD), to evaluate patency of coronary artery bypass grafts or implanted coronary stents or to evaluate volumetry and cardiac f...

Femur length (obstetric ultrasound)

Fetal femur length (FL) is a basic biometric parameter to assess fetal size. Femur length, together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and abdominal circumference, are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester, this may be extrapolated to an estimate of ...

Fetal abdominal circumference

Abdominal circumference (AC) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. AC together with biparietal diameter, head circumference, and femur length are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester, this may be extrapolated to an estimate of ges...

Head circumference

Head circumference (HC) is one of the basic biometric parameters used to assess fetal size. HC together with biparietal diameter (BPD), abdominal circumference (AC), and femur length (FL) are computed to produce an estimate of fetal weight. In the second trimester, this may be extrapolated to an...

Isolated free fluid in trauma

Isolated free fluid in trauma may or may not represent a significant injury, and this creates a diagnostic dilemma in determining appropriate treatment for these patients. Epidemiology The presence of isolated free fluid in trauma occurs in 3-5% of blunt trauma patients 1-4. Pathology The c...

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan

Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) scan is a point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed at the time of presentation of a trauma patient. It is invariably performed by a clinician, who should be formally trained, and is considered as an 'extension' of the trauma cl...

Stieda fracture

Stieda fractures refer to a bony avulsion injury of the medial collateral ligament (MCL) at the medial femoral condyle. When it fails to unite, it is known as a Pellegrini Stieda lesion. It should not be confused with a Stieda process fracture of the talus. Clinical presentation Avulsion of t...

Follicular monitoring

Follicular monitoring or follicular study is a vital component of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) assessment and timing. It basically employs a simple technique for assessing ovarian follicles at regular intervals and documenting the pathway to ovulation. Physiology Journey to ovulation begins d...

Bicaudate index

The bicaudate index is the ratio of width of two lateral ventricles at the level of the head of the caudate nucleus to distance between outer tables of skull at the same level. It can be a useful marker of ventricular volume and in the diagnosis of hydrocephalus. See also Evans' index

Lymph node imaging

Lymph node imaging is a useful technique, aiding the clinician in determining whether nodes are benign or malignant. Multiple modalities are used for the assessment and characterization of lymph nodes, each with its advantages and drawbacks. Modalities Ultrasound size number shape contour...

Breast calcifications (an approach)

An approach to breast calcifications in terms of imaging evaluation and biopsy aims to distinguish benign from malignant etiologies. This article overviews a general approach to the evaluation of breast calcifications. The types and descriptors of calcifications are detailed separately: breast c...

Thoracoplasty

Thoracoplasty is a surgical procedure that was originally designed to permanently collapse the cavities of pulmonary tuberculosis by removing the ribs from the chest wall 1-3 . It involved resection of multiple ribs, allowed the apposition of parietal to the visceral or mediastinal pleura. Until...

Deductive echocardiography

Deductive echocardiography is a step-by-step approach in diagnosing and differentiating congenital heart disease. Parameters assessed position of heart levocardia dextrocardia visceroatrial situs solitus inversus ambiguus ventricular loop D-loop L-loop conotruncus normal transpose...

Big rib sign

The big rib sign is a sign to differentiate right and left ribs on lateral chest radiographs. It exploits a technique of magnification differences on lateral projections between right and left ribs. For example, on right lateral projections the left ribs appear larger than right ribs. This s...

Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic ratio

Fetal MCA systolic/diastolic (S/D) ratio is an important parameter in fetal middle cerebral arterial Doppler assessment. It is a useful predictor of fetal distress and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Interpretation Normal During pregnancy the middle cerebral (and other intracranial)...

CT cisternography

Computed tomography (CT) cisternography is a minimally-invasive imaging technique used to visualize the intracranial CSF cisterns using iodinated contrast medium injected into the subarachnoid space. Indications detect and localize active CSF leaks through the skull base (CSF rhinorrhea or CSF...

CT perfusion in ischemic stroke

CT perfusion in ischemic stroke has become established in most centers with stroke services as an important adjunct, along with CT angiography (CTA), to conventional unenhanced CT brain imaging. It enables differentiation of salvageable ischemic brain tissue (the penumbra) from the irrevocably ...

Weightbearing foot series (an approach)

Reporting a weightbearing foot series can be a daunting process if you are inexperienced and often results in the films being left for somebody else to report. This article attempts to demystify the whole process by providing a structured approach to their reporting. Technique The weightbearin...

Hindfoot equinus

Hindfoot equinus describes abnormal plantarflexion (calcaneotibial angle >90°) of the foot that occurs in the hindfoot. It occurs in congenital talipes equinovarus and congenital vertical talus.

Midfoot equinus

Midfoot equinus is an abnormality in foot alignment where there is abnormal plantarflexion of the foot in the midfoot 1. History and etymology Equinus is the possessive form of equus, the Latin for horse and was originally used for foot deformities in which there is plantar flexion such that a...

First metatarsal axis

The first metatarsal axis is represented by a line drawn down the longitudinal axis of the shaft of the first metatarsal. It can be drawn on lateral and DP radiographs and is used to measure the: first metatarsal inclination angle talo-first metatarsal angle

Calcaneal inclination axis

The calcaneal inclination axis is drawn between the most inferior portion of the calcaneal tuberosity and the most distal and inferior point of the calcaneus at the calcaneocuboid joint on a weight-bearing lateral foot radiograph. It can be used to draw the calcaneal inclination angle.

Cobb angle

The Cobb angle is the most widely used measurement to quantify the magnitude of spinal deformities, especially in the case of scoliosis, on plain radiographs. Scoliosis is defined as a lateral spinal curvature with a Cobb angle of >10° 4. A Cobb angle can also aid kyphosis or lordosis assessment...

Cases in radiology (video tutorials)

The cases featured in these video lectures are specifically selected to teach important concepts in radiology over a broad range of topics. The tutorials vary in difficulty from basic to advanced. For maximum learning, try the cases for yourself in Radiopaedia quiz mode first. We love this ser...

National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale

The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) is a score calculated from 11 components and is used to quantify the severity of strokes. The 11 components are: level of consciousness (1a: 0-3, 1b: 0-2 and 1c: 0-2) best gaze (0-2) visual fields (0-3) facial palsy (0-3) arm motor (0-...

Retrotracheal space

The retrotracheal space (or Raider triangle) is a radiolucent mediastinal space best seen on lateral chest x-rays. It is normally triangular in shape but can vary greatly in size and shape depending on the patient's body habitus and lung volume 1. Boundaries anterior: posterior tracheal stripe...

Blumensaat line

Blumensaat line, also known as the intercondylar line, is the line drawn along the roof of the intercondylar notch of the femur on a sagittal view of the knee. It can be used for: indicating the relative position of the patella - normally intersects the lower pole of the patella evaluating fo...

Normal radiographic measurements of the shoulder

Normal radiographic measurements of the shoulder are important in the evaluation of the osseous relationships in plain radiography. Normal measurements do not rule out pathology and must be considered in the context of other findings and the clinical presentation. acromioclavicular (AC) joint s...

Pineal region (an approach)

A systematic approach to the pineal region is crucial as it is at the confluence of many intracranial structures/regions and is the site of origin of a number of unique pathologies as well as playing host to many entities which are more frequently encountered elsewhere. As such an understanding ...

Polycystic ovarian syndrome in the exam

Getting a film with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) in a subfertile patient is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with a normal size. There is diffuse thickening of the endometri...

Placental abruption in the exam

Getting a film with placental abruption (premature separation of placenta from uterus) in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound show a single live fetus with gestational age of 27 weeks. The cervix i...

Pelvic pain in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with pelvic pain in the exam. Most examinations are performed using ultrasound. Always say that you would further assess the uterus with 3D ultrasound. You may also say that in my department we would perform a sonohysterogram. Only...

Infertility in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with subfertility in the exam. Ultrasound is the initial examination of choice. Always say that you would further assess the uterus with 3D ultrasound. You may also say that in my department we would perform a sonohysterogram or HS...

Submucosal leiomyoma in the exam

Getting a film with submucosal fibroid in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound scans show an anteverted uterus with endometrium that is 7 mm wide and has a trilaminar appearance indicative of the pe...

Anembryonic pregnancy in the exam

Getting a film with anembryonic pregnancy in the radiology fellowship examination is one of the many exam set-pieces that the candidate must be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound shows a uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is at least 25 m...

Endometrial polyp in the exam

Getting a film with endometrial polyp in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound images in a lady with post-menopausal bleeding show an anteverted uterus with focal increased endometrial thickness to 1...

Perigestational hemorrhage in the exam

Getting a film with pregestational hemorrhage in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal (TV) pelvic ultrasound shows an anteverted uterus with an intrauterine gestational sac. MSD is 20 mm in TV study with a single, li...

Per vaginal bleeding in the exam

It is important to have a systematic way of approaching a case with per vaginal (PV) bleeding in the exam. Premenopausal embedded IUCD lost IUCD submucosal fibroid Pregnancy-related perigestational hemorrhage intrauterine fetal demise ectopic pregnancy ruptured ectopic cervical ectopi...

Gynecological ultrasound set-pieces

The clinical history will nearly always lead to a short differential or the answer. Show off to the examiner that you have a structured approach to reporting and managing the patient. Structured approach uterus: size, version and shape (normal or variant which you should elaborate on and say w...

Traumatic aortic injury in the exam

Getting a film with traumatic aortic injury in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. This is one of the cases you should look and not speak for 10 seconds as there tends to be a lot of findings on the film of patients with a traumatic aortic injury. Description...

Bone age assessment

Bone age assessment is used to radiologically assess the biological and structural maturity of immature patients from their hand and wrist x-ray appearances. It forms an important part of the diagnostic and management pathway in children with growth and endocrine disorders. It is helpful in the ...

Left upper lobe collapse in the exam

Getting a film with left upper lobe collapse in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description This frontal chest radiograph shows hazy (or veil-like*) opacification of the left hemithorax that is associated with superior displacement of the left hilum and a ...

Aunt Minnie

The term Aunt Minnie is shorthand for a classic, often pathognomonic, radiological appearance of a diagnosis. Terminology Originally, the term Aunt Minnie referred to a radiological diagnosis made by gestalt 3-5. The Aunt Minnie approach was explained by analogy: if you knew well your Aunt nam...

Screening for breast cancer

Screening for breast cancer includes activities which test members of asymptomatic populations for breast cancer. Many advanced countries have breast screening programs. The most widely adopted method for breast cancer screening is mammography. There are few areas in imaging fraught with more c...

Split bolus technique

The split bolus technique is a CT imaging investigation used in patients with hematuria aiming to put together, in a single image acquisition, both the nephrographic and renal excretory phases and thus reducing the radiation dose of the study. It is a CT protocol adopted for some institutions fo...

Intraventricular masses (an approach)

The ventricular system of the brain plays host to a variety of unique tumors, as well as tumors that are more frequently seen elsewhere (e.g. meningiomas). Besides, some intra-axial (parenchymal) masses can be mostly exophytic and thus appear mostly intraventricular. A systematic approach taking...

Intradural spinal mass lesions (an approach)

Intradural spinal mass lesions are relatively uncommon, compared to intracranial or extradural masses, and can be challenging to diagnose. Additionally, the need for a pre-operative/non-operative diagnosis is in many ways greater as biopsy of lesions within the cord has the potential of devastat...

Nipple markers

Nipple markers can be a useful technique in the evaluation of small radiodensities overlying the expected position of the nipple on a chest radiograph. Not uncommonly a small round opacity projects over the lower thorax on a chest radiograph (see: solitary pulmonary nodule). Often, especially i...

Retrosternal airspace

The retrosternal airspace is seen as a normal lucency between the posterior aspect of the sternum and anterior aspect of the ascending aorta on lateral chest radiographs. This space normally measures less than 2.5 cm in width. Increased retrosternal airspace is a sign of pulmonary emphysema, whi...

Radiographic evaluation of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Radiographic evaluation of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction involves: femoral component a line is drawn along the posterior cortex of the femur a second line is drawn along the roof of the intercondylar notch of the femur (Blumensaat line) the point of intersection of these tw...

Incidental lung nodules

Incidental lung nodules are encountered commonly in normal clinical practice on CT. The risk of developing cancer in very small nodules (<5 mm) is very low. However, clear-cut recommendations are still not in place with high variation in practice amongst reporting radiologists 1. As a result, it...

Selective internal radiation therapy

Selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT), also known as transarterial radioembolization (TARE) or hepatic radioembolization, is a relatively new and developing modality for treating non-resectable liver tumors. The procedure consists of a transcatheter injection of radioactive particles via t...

Pituitary MRI (an approach)

A systematic approach to the pituitary region is crucial as small lesions can have a profound impact on the patient, and can be subtle even on high quality dedicated MRI imaging. Successful assessment of the pituitary region relies not only on a clear understanding of the local anatomy but also ...

Hyperechoic liver lesions

A hyperechoic liver lesion on ultrasound can arise from a number of entities, both benign and malignant. A benign hepatic hemangioma is the most common entity encountered, but in patients with atypical findings or risk for malignancy, other entities must be considered. Benign hepatic hemangiom...

Liver lesions (pediatric)

Pediatric liver lesions are a heterogeneous group that includes infiltrative lesions and those that demonstrate mass-effect. Moreover, they may be solitary or multiple, benign or malignant: benign liver tumors malignant liver tumors Epidemiology There are differing frequencies of both benign...

Adult chest radiograph pathology checklist

The adult chest radiograph pathology checklist is just a pathology checklist of things not to miss when reviewing a chest radiograph, especially in the exam setting. standard review areas apices retrocardiac area hilar regions below the diaphragm right descending pulmonary artery (like a l...

Adult chest radiograph common exam pathology

Adult chest radiograph common exam pathology is essential to consider in the build up to radiology exams. The list of potential diagnoses is apparently endless, but there are some favorites that seem to appear with more frequency. When dealing with the adult chest radiograph in the exam setting...

Viva preparation

Viva preparation is key to successful completion of professional exams. It is really important to think about the types of cases that you will be shown in the viva and preparing aurally for them. So, rather than learning sitting with your books, get a set of films, or using the Radiopaedia.org...

Adult chest radiograph set-pieces

There are a number of adult chest radiograph set-pieces. These are based on common patterns of disease that are seen on chest radiographs. Make sure that you have relevant differentials for these appearances and a quick oral set-piece for them when they come up. Pulmonary parenchyma lobar coll...

Neonatal chest radiograph in the exam setting

The neonatal chest radiograph in the exam setting may strike fear into the heart of many radiology registrars, but it need not! There are only a limited number of diagnoses that will be presented on such films and they are often highlighted by the history. Gestation First of all, have a look ...

Pathology checklists

Pathology checklists are series of sometimes missed pathological entities possible to see on radiological studies. They are helpful when reporting a radiograph, ultrasound, or cross-sectional examination as a way to ensure that you fully review a film and don't fall foul of satisfaction of searc...

Pneumothorax in the exam

Getting a film with a pneumothorax in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. It is unlikely that they will give you a simple pneumothorax - so, it is worthwhile considering the likely causes and whether it is under tension. Miss it at your peril (both in real li...

Erectile dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction is a common condition. Doppler ultrasound is a highly accurate means of assessing patients with erectile dysfunction. Pathology Psychological factors (mental impulse) cause the transmission of parasympathetic impulses to the penis. This causes relaxation of arterioles and...

Four chamber cardiac view (fetal)

The four chamber cardiac view is an important and routinely performed view in both fetal echocardiography as well as on a standard second trimester anatomy scan. Detectable pathology The four chamber view can only detect some of the congenital cardiac anomalies (~64% according to one study 2) ...

Second trimester ultrasound scan

The second trimester scan is a routine ultrasound examination in many countries that is primarily used to assess fetal anatomy and detect the presence of any fetal anomalies. The second trimester extends from 13 weeks and 0 days to 27 weeks and 6 days of gestation although the majority of thes...

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