Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
570 results found
Article
Baker classification of acetabular erosion in hip hemiarthroplasty
The Baker classification of acetabular erosion in hip hemiarthroplasty is commonly used to grade severity 1-3.
Classification
Acetabular erosion is assessed on frontal radiographs 1:
grade 0: no erosion
grade 1: narrowing of the articular cartilage, no erosion
grade 2: acetabular bone erosi...
Article
Unified classification system for periprosthetic fractures
The unified classification system (UCS) is used for periprosthetic fractures.
The classification is proposed to standardise the classification of periprosthetic fractures and provide a guide to the management of these fractures regardless of the broken bone or the joint affected 1-4.
The class...
Article
Pyelolithiasis
Pyelolithiasis is calculus or calculi located centrally within the renal pelvis.
Terminology
Other terminologies that may be used interchangeably with pyelolithiasis to refer to these calculi include renal stones, urolithiasis, and nephrolithiasis. A calculus located within the renal calyx can...
Article
Zone classification of extensor tendon injury
The zone classification of extensor tendon injuries divides injuries into zones based on anatomical location.
The zone classification is proposed to guide the management of these injuries and predict possible outcomes.
Classification
Flexor tendon injuries were initially classified into eight...
Article
Barkovich classification of agenesis of the corpus callosum with interhemispheric cyst
The Barkovich classification of agenesis of the corpus callosum with interhemispheric cyst divides interhemispheric cysts that are diagnosed in individuals with concurrent agenesis of the corpus callosum into two types based on the presence or absence of communication with the ventricular system...
Article
DeLee & Charnley and Gruen zones
DeLee & Charnley and Gruen classified the radiolucent lines between the total hip arthroplasty and the bone seen on the AP and lateral views of the operated hip in three acetabular zones and seven femoral zones, respectively.
Loosening induces the formation of a fibrous or 'synovial-like' membr...
Article
West Point classification of humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament
The West Point classification of humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament (HAGL) was created to describe avulsion injuries of the inferior glenohumeral ligament (IGHL).
Classification
This classification has six types of lesions divided into two categories based on anterior or posterior i...
Article
Hamada classification of massive rotator cuff tears
The Hamada classification divides the x-ray features of massive rotator cuff tears into five grades. Subsequently, Walch subdivided grade 4 into two subtypes 1,2.
Classification
Hamada classification with Walch modification of rotator cuff tear arthropathy 1,3:
grade 1: acromiohumeral interva...
Article
Pomeranz MRI classification of Achilles tendon disorders
The Pomeranz MRI classification of Achilles tendon disorders classifies grade 0 as normal tendon, grades IA, IB, and II as abnormal intratendinous signal (tendinopathy), and grade III as complete rupture with retraction.
Classification
grade 0: homogeneous hypointensity (normal) ± peritendinou...
Article
Tubiana classification of mallet finger
Tubiana classification considers the size of the bony fragment and subluxation. It includes tendinous mallet deformities and correlates bone fragment size with volar subluxation.
Mallet fractures are avulsion fractures of the distal phalanx peri- or intra-articular base with involvement of the ...
Article
Mutch classification of greater tuberosity fractures
The Mutch classification is a system used to classify isolated greater tuberosity fractures and has important therapeutic implications. It is considered reliable for isolated greater tuberosity fractures but is less reliable in multi-part proximal humeral fractures 4.
Classification
The Mutch ...
Article
Gastro-oesophageal reflux grading
Gastro-oesophagal reflux grading is based on the vertical height that contrast-media reaches during fluoroscopy 1:
grade I: reflux in the distal oesophagus
grade II: reflux up to or just above the carina
grade III: reflux into cervical oesophagus
grade IV: reflux in the cervical oesophagus w...
Article
Muhle staging system of cervical canal stenosis
The Muhle staging system is a classification system used to evaluate the severity of cervical canal stenosis.
The system was developed based on a study conducted by Muhle et al. who used kinematic MRI to assess the dynamic changes of the cervical spine in patients at different stages of degener...
Article
Modified Choi classification of common bile duct duplication
Modified Choi classification of common bile duct duplication is a widely used system for classifying the rare duplication of the extrahepatic biliary tree. 1-3:
type I: distal septum splitting the bile duct lumen
type II: bifurcation of the distal bile duct with each lumen draining independent...
Article
Kang grading system of cervical canal stenosis
The Kang grading system of cervical canal stenosis is used to grade the severity of cervical canal stenosis as demonstrated on MRI. It is derived from the earlier Muhle staging system 1,2.
It categorises cervical stenosis into four grades from 0 to 3 according to the severity of spinal cord com...
Article
Nerot-Sirveaux classification of scapular notching
The Nerot-Sirveaux classification of scapular notching describes the radiographic extent of bone loss in patients with scapular notching after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA).
An AP glenoid view (tangential to baseplate) is needed to assess for scapular notching, which will allow vis...
Article
Leddy and Packer classification of jersey finger injuries
The Leddy and Packer classification of jersey finger injuries, which is an avulsion injury of the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) from its insertion at the base of the distal phalanx, is based on the level of tendon retraction and presence of fracture 2,3.
Classification
Leddy and Packer clas...
Article
Wright and Cofield classification of postoperative periprosthetic humeral fractures
The Wright and Cofield classification system can be used for postoperative periprosthetic humeral fractures. Humeral periprosthetic fractures may be intraoperative or postoperative shoulder arthroplasty complications, which can lead to loosening and migration of the prosthesis 1.
Classification...
Article
Cruess classification of humeral head osteonecrosis
The Cruess classification of humeral head osteonecrosis uses plain radiographs, CT and/or MRI for its staging system. Early Cruess stage osteonecrosis may only be detected on MRI.
Classification
The Cruess classification is the best-known system and is composed of five stages 1:
stage I: pre-...
Article
iNPH Radscale
The iNPH Radscale is a reproducible semiquantified grading scale for the imaging findings of normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH).
Scale
The iNPH Radscale uses the following imaging findings on both CT and MRI 1,4:
Evans index
≤0.25: 0 points
0.26-0.3: 1 point
>0.3: 2 points
narrow parieta...
Article
Disseminated histoplasmosis
Disseminated histoplasmosis, also known as progressive disseminated histoplasmosis, is a severe form of histoplasmosis infection typically seen in immunosuppressed patients, especially in the setting of HIV infection. It results from haematogenous dissemination of the infection, involving multip...
Article
Lumbar nerve root anomaly classification
There are a number of systems for lumbar nerve root anomaly classification with the Neidre and MacNab classification the most commonly cited; other systems include the Postacchini classification, and the Kadish and Simmons classification 2.
Classification
Neidre and MacNab classification modif...
Article
Pathria grading system of lumbar facet joint degeneration
The Pathria grading system is used to classify osteoarthritis in lumbar facet joint degeneration.
Usage
This grading system is based on CT findings 1,2.
Classification
grade 1: normal CT scan with no degenerative findings
grade 2: mild joint space narrowing noted, small osteophytes
grade 3...
Article
Montreal classification of inflammatory bowel disease
The Montreal Classification of inflammatory bowel disease is used primarily to classify the severity of ulcerative colitis and Crohn disease based on specific categories.
This can then be used to guide treatment, discern risk of complications as well as facilitate epidemiological studies 1. The...
Article
Von Laer classification of paediatric supracondylar humerus fractures
The Von Laer classification, also known as the Laer classification, is used to grade the severity and the need for further diagnostic evaluation and surgical correction of paediatric supracondylar humerus fractures, based on their clinical and radiological presentation.
Classification
Von Laer...
Article
Weishaupt grading system of lumbar facet joint degeneration
The Weishaupt grading system is a radiological classification system used for lumbar facet joint degeneration.
Usage
The Weishaupt grading system for lumbar facet joint degeneration can be used in CT and/or MRI 1,2.
Classification
grade 0: normal facet joint width (~2-4 mm)
grade 1: facet j...
Article
Subarachnoid haemorrhage grading systems
Subarachnoid haemorrhage grading systems are numerous, seeking to variably group patients presenting with subarachnoid haemorrhage in an attempt to categorise, quantify or prognosticate. Some are dedicated to subarachnoid haemorrhage (e.g. Hunt and Hess Scale), others are used in a broader clini...
Article
ISAKOS classification of meniscal tears
ISAKOS classification of meniscal tears classifies meniscal tears based on arthroscopic evaluation 1.
Usage
The classification system is primarily developed for surgical documentation of meniscal tears and it has shown good inter-observer reliability amongst surgeons 2,3.
Classification
Tea...
Article
FIGO classification system for uterine leiomyoma
The FIGO classification system for uterine leiomyoma (fibroids) classifies uterine leiomyomas based on location.
Usage
This classification system was developed for clinical and research purposes 2, however, in clinical use, there is significant variation in agreement 3.
Classification
Submuc...
Article
Kfuri and Schatzker classification of tibial plateau fractures
The Kfuri and Schatzker classification of tibial plateau fractures is a revision of the classic Schatzker classification 1. It complements the original radiographic classification with the inclusion of CT, allowing for a tridimensional interpretation of the fracture 2,3.
The revisited classific...
Article
Residual tumour classification
Residual tumour classification, also known as R classification, defines how complete the resection of a malignancy has been at surgery. It has an important prognostic implication.
Classification
R0: no residual tumour
R1: microscopic residual tumour
R2: macroscopic residual tumour
An R0 res...
Article
Crawford classification
The Crawford classification is a system used to classify thoracoabdominal aneurysms and has important therapeutic implications. Precise classification of anatomical features allows accurate stratification of risk and appropriate operative planning 1,2.
Classification
The system divides thorac...
Article
Sugaya classification
The Sugaya classification is a 5-point system used to evaluate rotator cuff repair.
Usage
The Sugaya classification is the most common system used to evaulate rotator cuff repair 2 although intra- and inter-observer reproducibility is variable 3,4.
Classification
The Sugaya classification a...
Article
Cauldwell classification
Cauldwell classification is a commonly used classification in assessing bronchial artery branching pattern.
Classification
The bronchial artery branching pattern is classified into four types based on the number of intercostobronchial trunks (ICBT) - that gives rise to right bronchial artery a...
Article
Glasgow-Blatchford score
The Glasgow-Blatchford score (GBS) is a widely-used and well-validated scoring system for upper GI bleeding and the need for intervention.
Score
The scoring system relies upon knowing the patient's urea, haemoglobin, systolic blood pressure, and several other criteria. Each criterion is scored...
Article
Tronzo classification of trochanteric fractures
The Tronzo classification of trochanteric fractures is a classification system used when assessing intertrochanteric fractures.
The Tronzo classification is proposed to provide a guide to the management of these fractures.
Due to its simplicity, the Tronzo classification has become the preferr...
Article
Effman Classification of urethral duplication
The Effman classification is a widely adopted system to classify the several distinct types of urethral duplication. It's considered to be the most complete classification from a clinical and functional point of view, but it's only based on male forms and does not distinguish sagittal from coron...
Article
Herbert classification of scaphoid fractures
The Herbert classification of scaphoid fractures, also known as the Herbert and Fisher classification, is one of the most frequently used classification systems when assessing scaphoid fractures.
The Herbert classification is proposed to provide a guide to the management of these fractures.
Cl...
Article
Bone Reporting and Data System (Bone-RADS)
The Bone Reporting and Data System (Bone-RADS) is an algorithm developed and proposed by the Practice Guidelines and Technical Standards Committee of the Society of Skeletal Radiology for the diagnostic workup of incidentally encountered solitary bone lesions in adults on MRI and/or CT 1. It has...
Article
Practical classification of forearm fractures
The practical classification of forearm fractures is a simple descriptive classification system commonly used when assessing forearm fractures, especially in the paediatric population.
Although simple, the classification provides a good guide to the management. These characteristics allow for a...
Article
Karnofsky performance status
The Karnofsky performance status (KPS) is a standardised measure of a patient’s ability to perform a variety of ordinary tasks. It is a score that ranges from 0 to 100 with a higher score indicating higher (less impaired) function. It is widely used in trials and allows for patient groups to be ...
Article
Green and O'Brien classification of thumb metacarpal fractures
The Green and O'Brien classification of thumb metacarpal fractures is a commonly used classification system when assessing thumb metacarpal fractures.
However, since most types of fractures coincide with well-known eponymous fractures, the system itself is not usually used properly, giving pref...
Article
Mayo classification of olecranon fractures
The Mayo classification of olecranon fractures is one of the most frequently used classification systems when assessing olecranon fractures.
The Mayo classification can be used to aid in treatment choice. Mayo type II and III fractures usually require operative treatment.
Classification
The M...
Article
Brain and Spinal Cord Injury Centre score
The Brain and Spinal Injury Centre (BASIC) score is a classification system for grading acute traumatic spinal cord injury based on the axial extent of intramedullary signal abnormality on T2 weighted MRI.
Classification
The BASIC score is an ordinal scale that is graded 0 to 4 1:
BASIC 0 (no...
Article
Robinson classification of clavicle fractures
The Robinson classification of clavicle fractures, as well as the AO/OTA and Neer classification systems, is a frequently used classification system for assessing clavicular fractures.
The Robinson classification is based on a review of a thousand patients and was developed to provide a guide t...
Article
Tuli classification of occipital condyle fractures
The Tuli classification of occipital condyle fractures is a clinically-orientated system for describing these injuries based on fracture displacement and ligamentous injury. It is newer than the more well-known Anderson and Montesano classification of occipital condyle fractures and allows the i...
Article
Double beak sign
The double beak sign refers to the sudden tapering that two adjacent intestinal loops show in the internal hernia at the transition point of the closed loop obstruction.
The marked reduction in calibre results in distension of the afferent and efferent intestinal loops.
History and etymology
I...
Article
Nunley-Vertullo classification
The Nunley-Vertullo classification is one of several classification systems used for the categorisation of Lisfranc injuries. It is based on clinical, x-ray and bone scan findings and also associates the stages with management options or recommendations regarding those injuries 1-3.
Usage
The ...
Article
IOTA-ADNEX model
The ADNEX (Assessment of Different NEoplasias in the adneXa) model is a risk model developed by the IOTA (International Ovarian Tumour Analysis) group to differentiate benign and malignant neoplasms of the ovary and, among them, four different subgroups (borderline, stage I cancer, stage II-IV c...
Article
Landells classification of atlas fractures
The Landells (and van Peteghem) classification of fractures of the atlas is one of the commonly used systems to describe C1 vertebral injuries.
Classification
Fractures are classified by their involvement of the C1 anterior arch, posterior arch, and/or lateral mass 1:
type I: confined to eith...
Article
Heidelberg bleeding classification
The Heidelberg bleeding classification categorises intracranial haemorrhages occurring after ischaemic stroke and reperfusion therapy.
Anatomic description
Class 1: haemorrhagic transformation of infarcted brain tissue
1a: HI1: scattered small petechiae, no mass effect
1b: HI2: confluent pet...
Article
WHO classification of skin tumours
The World Health Organizatiοn classification of skin tumours is the most widely used pathologic classification system for skin tumours. The most recent edition is the 4th, which was published in 2018 1. The radiologically relevant and common entities are reflected below.
Classification
1. Ke...
Article
Classification system article structure
Articles about classification systems have their own specific structure.
Please also see reproduction of classification systems.
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Formatting of the classification system article title and use of the classification system name th...
Article
Clermont score
The Clermont or DWI-MaRIA scoring system is used to assess ileocolonic Crohn disease activity on noncontrast MRI enterography. It is based on the earlier Magnetic Resonance Index of Activity (MaRIA) index, however, it does not require intravenous gadolinium by substituting relative contrast enha...
Article
Meyers and McKeever classification of ACL avulsion fractures
Meyers and McKeever classification of ACL avulsion fractures is the most frequently employed system to describe ACL avulsion fractures.
Classification
Under the Meyers and McKeever system (with modifications by Zaricznyj) injuries are classified into four main types:
type 1: minimally/nondisp...
Article
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (diagnostic criteria)
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, alternatively Takotsubo syndrome, is a primary acquired cardiomyopathy characterised by transient left ventricular dysfunction. Several sets of diagnostic criteria exist and are variably utile in various clinical and research settings.
International Takotsubo Diagnosti...
Article
Magnetic Resonance Index of Activity (MaRIA)
The Magnetic Resonance Index of Activity (MaRIA) scoring system is used to assess ileocolonic Crohn disease activity on contrast-enhanced MRI enterography. The segmental index represents disease severity in one bowel segment, whilst assessing six defined anatomic regions these can be combined in...
Article
AO classification of distal femur fractures
The AO classification of distal femoral fractures is one of the commonly used fracture classification systems in orthopaedics.
Each long bone has a single number with the parts of the bone denoted numerically, the proximal end is 1, diaphysis is 2, and the distal end is 3.
The distal femur sy...
Article
Not elsewhere classified (NEC)
Not elsewhere classified (NEC) is a term used in a variety of classification systems to denote an entity that has been fully characterised but whose features are contradictory and/or do not fit into established classifications.
Not elsewhere classified (NEC) should not, however, be confused wi...
Article
Not otherwise specified (NOS)
Not otherwise specified (NOS) is a term used in a variety of classification systems to denote an entity that has been only incompletely characterised; enough for a general diagnosis but not to the point of a complete diagnosis.
The definition and use will vary between different classification ...
Article
Lumbar spinal stenosis (grading)
Lumbar spinal stenosis grading refers to systems for classifying the severity of lumbar canal stenosis (central spinal canal narrowing) around the cauda equina nerve roots.
Usage
The two most popular systems, both applied to visual assessment of MRI, are the Lee grading system, and the Schiza...
Article
Van Assche index
The Van Assche index is a semiquantitative scoring system originally developed in 2003 to assess the severity and disease response in perianal fistulizing Crohn disease. In 2017 substantial changes were proposed to the original system, resulting in the modified Van Assche index. Both system rema...
Article
Bile duct duplication
Bile duct duplication, also known as common bile duct duplication, (although in some cases this latter terminology would be erroneous), is a rare congenital anomaly of the biliary system. A double bile duct is considered normal during early human development, but by birth, we expect to see the c...
Article
Anectasis
Anectasis is a term that describes primary atelectasis, as distinct from secondary atelectasis.
Anectasis refers to the failure of the lung to expand fully at birth.
See also
atelectasis
Article
Bone lymphoma
Lymphoma of the bone may represent lymphoma that has originated within that bone itself i.e. primary, or metastasised there from another organ/tissue, i.e. secondary. Secondary forms of bone lymphoma are much more common than the primary bone form.
primary osseous lymphoma
secondary osseous ly...
Article
NeuroImaging Radiological Interpretation System (NIRIS) for acute traumatic brain injury
The NeuroImaging Radiological Interpretation System (NIRIS) is a scheme for structured contextual reporting of CT head examinations of suspected head injuries.
The NIRIS was proposed 1 in 2018 by a multi-institute group of neuroradiologists based at Stanford University. Its unique objective is ...
Article
Entorhinal cortical atrophy score
The entorhinal cortical atrophy (ERICA) score has been developed as an alternative to the medial temporal lobe atrophy (MTA) score to help visually identify patients with Alzheimer disease by evaluating the entorhinal cortex for volume loss 1.
Usage
An ERICA score of 2 or 3 (see below) has bee...
Article
LaPrade classification system of meniscal root tears
The LaPrade classification system of meniscal root tears characterises meniscal root tears based on morphology. The system was originally conceived based on arthroscopy 1,2.
Usage
It has to be emphasised that this is a primarily arthroscopic classification system, however, the same morphologi...
Article
Modified Golan classification of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
The modified Golan classification of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, employing clinical findings and imaging appearances, is used to categorise ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) into the following three categories of severity with five grades 1,2:
mild OHSS: characterised by bilateral...
Article
Bishop score
The Bishop score is a criterion for successful induction of labour, vaginal delivery and includes the age of gestation, parity, presenting part of the fetus, previous history of childbirths and consent of the patient. This score decides whether a patient needs cervical ripening or not 1,4.
Bish...
Article
Hamate fracture (classification)
Hamate fractures are an uncommon form of carpal bone fractures and only account for 1-2% of such fractures.
Classification
Hamate fractures usually get subdivided into two broad groups: hook fractures and body fractures.
Classification of hamate fractures:
type 1: hook of hamate fractur...
Article
Parathyroid proliferative disease
Parathyroid proliferative disease is the collective term for a spectrum of parathyroid disorders 1:
parathyroid adenoma
parathyroid carcinoma
parathyroid atypical adenoma: controversial entity
parathyroid hyperplasia
primary chief cell hyperplasia
primary water-clear cell hyperplasia (rare...
Article
Anderson and Montesano classification of occipital condyle fractures
The Anderson and Montesano classification is a widely used system for describing occipital condyle fractures. It divides injuries into three types based on morphology and mechanism of injury 1-5.
Classification
type I: impacted type occipital condyle fracture
morphology: comminution of the co...
Article
Traynelis classification of atlanto-occipital dislocations
The Traynelis classification of atlanto-occipital dislocations describes injuries of the atlanto-occipital joint according to the displacement of the occipital condyles relative to the atlas:
type I: anterior displacement
type II: longitudinal distraction (superior-inferior displacement)
type...
Article
Bosniak classification of cystic renal masses (version 2019)
The Bosniak classification of cystic renal masses (version 2019), or usually simply Bosniak classification, version 2019, is a proposed update of the classic/current Bosniak criteria. The update hopes to improve the classification's predictive power for malignancy and minimise the number of beni...
Article
AO/OTA classification of distal tibial fractures
The AO/OTA classification is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying distal tibial fractures or tibial distal end segment fractures. Like other fractures, they are divided into three groups subject to the severity and complexity of the respective injury 1:
type A: extraarticular...
Article
AO/OTA classification of malleolar fractures
The AO/OTA classification of malleolar segment fractures is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying malleolar fractures. It takes the Danis-Weber classification into account and can be correlated to the Lauge-Hansen classification.
Malleolar fractures are divided into three grou...
Article
International Classification of Diseases
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) or International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems constitutes a diagnostic classification standard and tool for all health disorders including epidemiological, clinical, research and health management issues. It...
Article
Wassel classification for radial polydactyly
The Wassel classification system is used to classify pre-axial polydactyly, also called radial polydactyly.
The classification system is based on the type (bifid vs duplication) and level of duplication from distal to proximal.
I: bifid distal phalanx
II: duplicated distal phalanx
III: bifid...
Article
Segmental anatomy of the coronary arteries
The segmental anatomy of the coronary arteries has been originally developed and published by the Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and the American Heart Association (AHA). It is widely used for the description of coronary findings in particular within the scope of coronary artery disease.
Cor...
Article
Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting and Data System (O-RADS)
The Ovarian-Adnexal Imaging Reporting and Data System, (O-RADS), aims to ensure that there are uniform unambiguous sonographic and MRI evaluations of ovarian or other adnexal lesions, accurately assigning each lesion to a risk category of malignancy being present, and which informs the appropria...
Article
Herring (Lateral Pillar) classification of Legg-Calvè-Perthes disease
Classification of Legg-Calvè-Perthes disease based on the height of the lateral pillar:
Group A : No involvement of the lateral pillar with no density changes identified.
Group B : at least 50% of the lateral pillar height maintained
Group C: less than 50% of the lateral pillar maintained
Th...
Article
Terminology of rectal cancer staging
The terminology used in describing the stage and features of rectal cancer staging is based on using abbreviations and prefixes to denote the specific stage identifier, modality of assessment and the patient's position in the treatment journey 1.
Terminology
Abbreviations and letters used in s...
Article
WHO classification of prostate tumours
The World Health Organisation (WHO) classification of prostate tumours is a commonly used classification system for prostate tumours. The current version was published in 2016 as part of the WHO Classification of Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs 1,2 and replaces the previou...
Article
Bethesda classification system for thyroid fine needle aspirates
Bethesda classification system for thyroid fine needle aspirates comprises six categories of pathological reporting of thyroid FNA, with each category linked to a malignancy risk.
Classification
category I: non-diagnostic
category II: benign
category III: atypia of undetermined sig...
Article
International Frontal Sinus Anatomy Classification
International Frontal Sinus Anatomy Classification (IFAC) result from an expert consensus, developed to improve the ability of the surgeon to understand the possible variations of the frontal recess and frontal sinus anatomy.
Classification
anterior cells: push the drainage pathway of the fron...
Article
Koos grading scale
The Koos grading scale 1 is frequently used as a classification system for vestibular schwannomas.
Classification
grade 1: small intracanalicular tumour
grade 2: small tumour with protrusion into the cerebellopontine cistern (CPA); no contact with the brainstem
grade 3: tumour o...
Article
Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting and Data System Magnetic Resonance Imaging (O-RADS MRI)
The Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting and Data System Magnetic Resonance Imaging (O-RADS MRI) forms the MRI component of the Ovarian-Adnexal Reporting and Data System (O-RADS). This system aims to ensure that there is a uniform, unambiguous MRI evaluation of ovarian or other adnexal lesions, accurately ...
Article
Gertzbein and Robbins classification
The Gertzbein and Robbins classification assesses the position of transpedicular screws.
Classification
Transpedicular screw position is graded from A to E based on the extent by which the screw breaches the cortex of the pedicle 1-3:
A: fully intrapedicular position without breach of the ped...
Article
Tile classification of pelvic fractures
The Tile classification of pelvic fractures is the precursor of the more contemporary Young and Burgess classification of pelvic ring fractures.
It takes into account stability, force direction, and pathoanatomy. The integrity of the posterior arch determines the grade, with the posterior arch ...
Article
Frontal mucocele
A frontal mucocele is a paranasal sinus mucocele in a frontal sinus and is the most common location of all the paranasal sinus mucoceles 1.
Clinical presentation
Mucocoeles in the frontal sinus may be asymptomatic with insidious onset or present with headaches 2 and facial pain. Forehead (supr...
Article
Lumbar foraminal stenosis
Lumbar foraminal stenosis or lumbar neuroforaminal stenosis is described as narrowing of the neural exit foramina. The patency of the neural exit foramina is assessed as part of the routine evaluation of lumbar MRI studies to determine what impact, if any, the surrounding structures have on the ...
Article
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (more commonly known as the DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association and is the most widely used guide to psychiatric diseases in clinical practice and research globally. The first edition was published in 1952; the lates...
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