Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
559 results found
Article
Pharmaceuticals used in nuclear imaging
There are several drugs which are useful for evaluation of nuclear studies for respective systems. These drugs play an important role in monitoring the physiological changes and aiding in diagnosis.
Drugs used are
metoclopramide and erythromycin in gastrointestinal scintigraphy; used for gastr...
Article
Macrocystic honeycombing
Macrocystic honeycombing refers to a morphological subtype of honeycombing seen on HRCT. Many authors consider that the individual lung cysts should be >4 mm in diameter to be classified as macrocystic honeycombing. This form is considered to be more commonly associated with usual interstitial p...
Article
PGMI evaluation system
PGMI (Perfect, Good, Moderate, Inadequate) is a method of evaluation of clinical image quality in mammography developed by the United Kingdom Mammography Trainers Group with the support of the Royal College of Radiographers, aimed to ensure the maintenance of a high standard of mammography in Br...
Article
Gilula three carpal arcs
Gilula three carpal arcs are used in the assessment of normal alignment of the carpus on PA wrist radiographs. They entail:
first arc: is a smooth curve outlining the proximal convexities of the scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum
second arc: traces the distal concave surfaces of the same bones
t...
Article
Pulmonary hypertension (2008 classification)
The classification system for pulmonary hypertension was revised at the 4th World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension held in Dana Point, California, in 2008 1.
This system is as follows:
group 1: pulmonary arterial hypertension
1.1: idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension
1.2: heritable ...
Article
Meandering main pancreatic duct
Meandering main pancreatic duct (MMPD) denotes a main pancreatic duct that drains normally into the major papilla but performs a hairpin turn (reverse Z-type) or loop (loop-type) in the pancreatic head, in contradistinction to the smooth curvature seen in most cases.
These ductal variants are f...
Article
Jackstone calculus
Jackstone calculus is the name assigned to the appearance of a subset of urinary calculi, a rare bladder stone with spiculated and stippled edges3.
Pathology
Jackstone calculi are almost always composed of calcium oxalate dihydrate. They are nearly always created, and thus, located, in the bla...
Article
Grading of brachial plexus injuries
According to CT myelography, brachial plexus injuries can be classified into six types 1:
N type: normal root sleeve and nerve roots
A1 type: slightly deformed root sleeves and nerve roots as compared to unaffected site
A2 type: obliteration of the tip of root sleeves and deformed thickened n...
Article
Castellvi classification of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae
The Castellvi classification is used for lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV):
type I: enlarged and dysplastic transverse process (at least 19 mm)
Ia: unilateral
Ib: bilateral
type II: pseudoarticulation of the transverse process and sacrum with incomplete lumbarization/sacralization; en...
Article
Modified Ringertz grading system for diffuse astrocytomas
The modified Ringertz grading system has historically been one of the more frequently used grading systems for diffuse astrocytomas, but has essentially been replaced by the WHO grading system.
Unlike the WHO grading system and St Anne-Mayo grading system (also known as the Dumas-Duport grading...
Article
Kernohan grading system for diffuse astroctyomas
The Kernohan grading system for diffuse astrocytomas is no longer used, superseded by the WHO grading system.
It was first described in 1949 and divided astrocytomas into 4 grades (I - IV) on the basis of histological features 1.
Article
WHO grading system for diffuse astrocytomas
The WHO grading system is the most widely used system for grading diffuse astrocytomas (c.2022) and is an adaptation of the now superseded St Anne-Mayo grading system (also known as the Daumas-Duport grading system).
Grade 1 is reserved for localized astrocytomas (see WHO classification of CNS...
Article
St. Anne-Mayo grading system of astrocytomas
The St. Anne-Mayo grading system, also known as the Daumas-Duport grading system, introduced in 1988 was for a time a popular system for grading diffuse astrocytomas but has now been replaced by the WHO grading system which, however, was derived from the St Anne-Mayo system and thus shares many ...
Article
Metaphyseal diaphyseal angle
The metaphyseal-diaphyseal angle (of Drennan) is an important measurement used to distinguish between tibia vara (Blount disease) and physiological bowleg.
Measurement
This angle is measured by drawing a line along the long axis of the tibia, creating a perpendicular to this line, and drawing...
Article
Classification of sacral fractures
There are several classification systems for sacral fractures, but the most commonly employed are the Denis classification and subclassification systems, and the Isler classification system. These classification systems are important to understand as proper classification can impact management.
...
Article
CT severity index in acute pancreatitis
The CT severity index (CTSI) is based on findings from an enhanced CT scan to assess the severity of acute pancreatitis. The severity of acute pancreatitis CT findings has been found to correlate well with clinical indices of severity.
The CT severity index sums two scores:
Balthazar score: g...
Article
Simpson grade
The Simpson grade of meningioma resection was described in 1957 and correlated the degree of surgical resection completeness with symptomatic recurrence 1.
grade I
complete removal including resection of the underlying bone and associated dura
9% symptomatic recurrence at 10 years
grade II
...
Article
Balthazar score
The Balthazar score is a subscore within the CT severity index (CTSI) for grading of acute pancreatitis.
The CTSI sums two scores:
Balthazar score: grading of pancreatitis (A-E)
grading the extent of pancreatic necrosis
The Balthazar score was originally used alone, but the addition of a sc...
Article
Lateral humeral condyle fracture
Lateral humeral condyle fractures also referred to simply as lateral condyle fractures (in the appropriate context), are relatively common elbow fractures that predominantly occur in children. They may be subtle but are hugely important to diagnose in a timely manner because if they are missed, ...
Article
Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas
The Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF) groups these lesions into three types based upon the site of venous drainage and the presence or absence of cortical venous drainage. It was first proposed in 1995 1. At the time of writing (July 2016), it is probably less popular ...
Article
Situs solitus
Situs solitus (rare plural: sitūs soliti) refers to the normal position of the thoracic and abdominal organs. This will include a left-sided heart, also known as levocardia.
Radiographic features
Plain radiograph
On plain radiograph, careful attention should be directed at the location of the...
Article
Thyroid imaging reporting and data system (TI-RADS)
Thyroid imaging reporting and data system (TI-RADS) refers to any of several risk stratification systems for thyroid lesions, usually based on ultrasound features, with a structure modelled off BI-RADS. The following article describes the initial iterations proposed by individual research groups...
Article
Pediatric midface anomalies (classification)
This classification system based on the embryology and anatomy of the nasal cavity, nasofrontal region, and nasolacrimal apparatus as well as anomalies associated with craniofacial syndromes.2
Nasal cavity
choanal atresia and stenosis
pyriform aperture stenosis
Nasofrontal region
conge...
Article
Open book pelvic injury
Open book pelvic injuries are most often the result of high-energy trauma and are associated with significant morbidity and mortality due to associated vascular injuries.
Pathology
Open book pelvic injuries result from an anteroposterior compression injury to the pelvis and result in a combin...
Article
RECIST 1.1: comparison with RECIST 1.0
Response Evaluation Criteria In Solid Tumors (RECIST) was updated to version 1.1 in 2009.
For both RECIST 1.0 and 1.1, the requirement for measurable disease at baseline depends on the endpoints of the clinical trial.
The fundamental concept common to both versions of RECIST is that measurable...
Article
Glasgow Coma Scale
The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) was developed in 1974 1 to describe the level of consciousness specifically in patients with head injury although it is now used widely as a shorthand for all manner of presentations and has generally been validated, although concerns remain about its use in certain ...
Article
Fractures of the extremities (general rules and nomenclature)
General rules and nomenclature of fractures should be understood by, and familiar to, anyone involved in the interpretation or management of fractures of the extremities. This article covers basic nomenclature of fractures.
Classification systems
Before the most appropriate treatment for a fr...
Article
AO classification of proximal humeral fractures
The AO/OTA classification together with the Neer classification is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying proximal humeral fractures. Like fractures in other bone segments, proximal humeral fractures are divided into three groups subject to the severity and complexity of the res...
Article
Talar neck fracture
Talar neck fractures extend through the thinnest cross-sectional portion of the talus, just proximal to the talar head. They represent one of the most common types of talus fracture (~30-50%), along with chip and avulsion fractures of the talus (~40-49%). These fractures are commonly associated ...
Article
Frykman classification of distal radial fractures
The Frykman classification of distal radial fractures is based on the AP appearance and encompasses the eponymous entities of Colles fracture, Smith fracture, Barton fracture, chauffeur fracture. It assesses the pattern of fractures, involvement of the radioulnar joint and presence of a distal u...
Article
Gartland classification of supracondylar humeral fractures
The Gartland classification of supracondylar fractures of the humerus is based on the degree and direction of displacement, and the presence of intact cortex. It applies to extension supracondylar fractures rather than the rare flexion supracondylar fracture.
Classification
type I: undisp...
Article
WHO histological classification of tumors of the uterine cervix
The WHO histological classification is a detailed classification of tumors of the uterine cervix.
epithelial tumors
squamous tumors and precursors
squamous cell carcinoma, not otherwise specified - 8070/3
keratinizing - 8071/3
non-keratinizing - 8072/3
basaloid - 8083/3
verrucous - 8051/3...
Article
Bado classification of Monteggia fracture-dislocations
The Bado classification is one of the more widely used classifications for Monteggia fracture-dislocations and mainly focuses on the radial component. Four types are recognized and are generally based on the principle that the direction in which the apex of the ulnar fracture points is the same ...
Article
Musculoskeletal fibromatoses
Musculoskeletal fibromatoses represent a wide spectrum of fibroblastic and myofibroblastic neoplasms with similar pathologic appearances and variable clinical behavior.
Pathology
They are benign fibrous tissue proliferations characterized by infiltrative growth and a tendency for local recurr...
Article
Child-Pugh score
The Child-Pugh score is a scoring system to measure the severity of chronic liver disease inclusive of cirrhosis. The intention is to provide a system with which clinicians can objectively communicate about liver function.
The score is composed from several categories:
total bilirubin, μmol/L ...
Article
Classification system for midline abnormalities of the brain and skull
Classification systems for midline abnormalities of the brain and skull are varied and constantly changing as the underlying embryology and genetics are uncovered. A relatively simple and robust classification system is based on the location of abnormalities, always remembering that midline abno...
Article
Classification system for malformations of the cerebellum
Classification systems for malformations of the cerebellum are varied and are constantly being revised as greater understanding of the underlying genetics and embryology of the disorders is uncovered. A classification proposed by Barkovich et al. in 2009 1 divides cerebellar malformations in two...
Article
Classification system for malformations of cortical development
The classification system for malformations of cortical development organizes myriad conditions into one of three major underlying groups according to the main underlying mechanism:
group I: abnormal cell proliferation or apoptosis
group II: abnormal neuronal migration
group III: abnor...
Article
Conotruncal cardiac anomalies
Conotruncal heart defects are a group of congenital cardiovascular anomalies involving the outflow tracts and great vessels. They are a leading cause of symptomatic cyanotic cardiac disease diagnosed in utero.
Epidemiology
They may account for up to a fifth of all congenital cardiac anomalies ...
Article
Periurethral cystic lesions
There are several periurethral cystic lesions. These include:
female genitourinary tract:
vaginal cysts
Mullerian cyst
Gartner duct cyst
epidermal inclusion cyst of the vagina
Skene duct cyst
Bartholin gland cyst
endometrial cyst of perineal-vulval-vaginal region
male genitourinary trac...
Article
Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems
Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems are numerous and represent attempts by various authors to create systems that allow uniform and reproducible classification and description of thoracolumbar fractures which in turn can help with treatment decision making and prognostication.
...
Article
Magerl classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures
The Magerl classification, one of many thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems, was adopted as the original AO classification in 1994 but has since then been superseded: see the current AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries.
Usage
Although the Magerl classification is based ...
Article
McAfee classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures
McAfee classification of acute traumatic spinal injuries is one of a number of thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems and based on the three-column concept of the spine (of Denis). It requires CT for an accurate assessment.
Usage
The McAfee classification uses terminology that is...
Article
Three column concept of spinal fractures
The three-column concept of thoracolumbar spinal fractures (of Denis) forms the basis of a number of widely used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems.
Usage
While the three-column concept was initially developed for classification of thoracolumbar spinal fractures, it can also ...
Article
Sex cord / stromal ovarian tumors
Sex cord / stromal ovarian tumors are a subtype of ovarian tumors and account for 8-10% of all ovarian tumors. They arise from two groups of cells in the ovary:
stromal cells
primitive sex cords: celomic epithelium
The group of tumors includes
ovarian fibroma-thecoma spectrum
ovarian fibrom...
Article
True hermaphroditism
True hermaphroditism is a form of disorder of gender development.
Pathology
Patients with true hermaphroditism have mosaicism of 46XX and 46XY. They therefore have both ovarian and testicular tissues.
Subtypes
There are three forms of true hermaphroditism:
unilateral true hermaphroditism
...
Article
Congenital utero-vaginal anomalies
There are many classification systems for congenital utero-vaginal anomalies. These include:
Buttram and Gibbons classification 2
American Fertility Society (AFS) classification
Modified Rock and Adam - AFS classification
Modified Rock and Adam - AFS classification
This classification divid...
Article
Parenchymal patterns in breast imaging
Parenchymal patterns in breast imaging influence mammographic screening sensitivity and is related to the risk of breast cancer. This article describes the historical classifications of breast density. See the main article on breast density for the currently accepted BI-RADS descriptors.
Classi...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 4
A BI-RADS 4 lesion under the breast imaging-reporting and data system refers to a suspicious abnormality. BI-RADS 4 lesions may not have the characteristic morphology of breast cancer but have a definite probability of being malignant. A biopsy is recommended for these lesions. If possible, the ...
Article
Peripheral arterial disease
Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a common and debilitating condition.
Epidemiology
The age-adjusted prevalence of peripheral arterial disease is ~12% 3.
Pathology
Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of occlusive arterial disease of the extremities in patients over 40 years of age with t...
Article
Hydrometra
Hydrometra is a descriptive term that refers to a distended uterus filled with clear, non-infected fluid.
See also
hematometra
pyometra
hydrometrocolpos
hydrocolpos
endometrial fluid
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 1
BI-RADS 1 is one of seven categories from the breast imaging reporting and data system. It is defined as negative and is used when imaging demonstrates:
no finding is present in an imaging modality (not even a benign finding)
there is nothing to comment on
a normal examination
The likelihoo...
Article
Mediastinal mass
Mediastinal masses may be caused by a wide variety of neoplastic and non-neoplastic pathologies. It is helpful to identify the location of the mass since this significantly reduces the breadth of the differential diagnosis.
There are four conceptual compartments of the mediastinum which are di...
Article
Classification of proximal femoral focal deficiency
Classification of proximal femoral focal deficiency (PFFD) can be complicated and numerous such classifications have been proposed. For a discussion of the condition refer to the article proximal femoral focal deficiency.
One of the simplest and most widely used is that proposed by Aitken 1 whi...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 2
BI-RADS 2 is a benign category in breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category should have a 100% chance of being benign.
Examples of such lesions or findings include:
calcified fibroadenomas
multiple secretory calcifications
fat-containing lesions...
Article
Placental grading
Placental grading (Grannum classification) refers to an ultrasound grading system of the placenta based on its maturity. This primarily affects the extent of calcifications. In some countries, the use of placental grading has fallen out of obstetric practice due to a weak correlation with advers...
Article
Biffl scale for blunt cerebrovascular injury
The Biffl scale or grade illustrates the spectrum of blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) seen on angiography (both CTA and DSA). Some authors refer to the grading scale as the Denver scale, which is not to be confused with the Denver criteria, a series of clinical indications to screen for blunt...
Article
Spinal metastases
Spinal metastasis is a vague term which can be variably taken to refer to metastatic disease to any of the following:
vertebral metastases (94%)
may have epidural extension
intradural extramedullary metastases (5%)
intramedullary metastases (1%)
Each of these are discussed separately. Below...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 3
BI-RADS 3 is an intermediate category in the breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category is considered probably benign, with a risk of malignancy of > 0% and ≤ 2%4.
Terminology
BI-RADS 3 should not be utilized in the screening setting. It should be reserved for ...
Article
CT colonography reporting and data system
CT Colonography Reporting and Data System (C-RADS) is a method devised to standardize CT colonography reporting.
Classification
It primarily classifies abnormalities into colonic (C) and extra-colonic (E).
Colonic classification
C0: inadequate study
C1: normal colon/benign lesion: ...
Article
Scalp hematoma
A scalp hematoma (plural: hematomas or hematomata) commonly occurs either following a perinatal injury at delivery or as part of head trauma.
Classification
There are three types of hematoma, which are defined by their location within the scalp, in particular their location as related to the g...
Article
Toast classification in acute ischemic stroke
The TOAST (trial of ORG 10172 in acute stroke treatment) classification denotes five sub types of ischemic stroke.
large-artery atherosclerosis (embolus / thrombosis)*
cardioembolism (high-risk / medium-risk)*
small-vessel occlusion (lacune)*
stroke of other determined etiology *
stroke of ...
Article
Neurodegenerative disease
Neurodegenerative disease is a blanket term encompassing a wide variety of disorders, typically slowly progressive, with variable gradual neurologic dysfunction.
Over the years numerous classifications schemas have been described, each adding a layer of confusion for students. The main distinc...
Article
Temporal bone fracture
Temporal bone fracture is usually a sequela of significant blunt head injury. In addition to potential damage to hearing and the facial nerve, associated intracranial injuries, such as extra-axial hemorrhage, diffuse axonal injury and cerebral contusions are common. Early identification of tempo...
Article
Coronoid process fracture
Fractures of the coronoid process of the ulna are uncommon and often occur in association with elbow dislocation.
Pathology
Mechanism
Fracture of the coronoid process is thought to result from elbow hyperextension with either avulsion of the brachialis tendon insertion or shearing off by the...
Article
Periventricular leukomalacia classification
One of the methods used for grading periventricular leukomalacia on sonographic appearance is as follows:
grade 1: areas of increased periventricular echogenicity without any cyst formation persisting for more than 7 days
grade 2: the echogenicity has resolved into small periventricular cysts
...
Article
Neck dissection classification
Neck dissection, also known as cervical lymphadenectomy, is the surgical procedure for the management of metastatic cervical lymphadenopathy. There are multiple types of neck dissection that vary by the structures removed 1. This article reflects the 2001 classification by the American Head and ...
Article
Spondylolisthesis
Spondylolisthesis (plural: spondylolistheses) denotes the slippage of one vertebra relative to the one below.
Terminology
Although etymologically it is directionless (see below) and could be applied to both anterolisthesis and retrolisthesis, in practice, however, spondylolisthesis is used sy...
Article
Short limb skeletal dysplasia
Short limb skeletal dysplasias are skeletal dysplasias which are characterized by limb shortening
Classification
Rhizomelic (proximal limb shortening)
hypochondroplasia
achondroplasia
chondrodysplasia punctata
pseudoachondroplasia
thanatophoric dysplasia
particularly type II
kyphomelic...
Article
Todani classification of bile duct cysts
The Todani classification of bile duct cysts classically divides choledochal cysts into five groups.
Classification
Traditional classification
Type I
See: type I choledochal cyst
account for 80-90% of all bile duct cysts
characterized by fusiform dilation of the extrahepatic bile duct
a s...
Article
Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy diagnostic criteria
For the diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) to be made, patients must have either two major criteria, one major and two minor criteria, or four minor criteria.
Major criteria
global or regional dysfunction and structural alterations:
severe dilatation of the ri...
Article
Germ cell tumor (classification)
Germ cell tumors are classified into two broad groups: seminoma and non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT). The later is then divided further according to histology:
seminoma
non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
embryonal cell carcinoma
choriocarcinoma
yolk sac tumor
teratoma
mixe...
Article
Tumors of the male urethra
Tumors of the male urethra are uncommon. They can be categorized both on the grounds of histology and location.
Histology
squamous cell carcinoma of the urethra: 80%
urothelial/transitional cell carcinoma of the urethra: 15% (predominantly posterior urethra)
adenocarcinoma of the urethra: 5%...
Article
Non-specific interstitial pneumonia
Non-specific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP) is the second most common morphological and pathological pattern of interstitial lung diseases. NSIP has two main subtypes:
fibrotic type: most common, having a more dismal outcome
cellular type: less common, but carries a much better prognosis and re...
Article
Bone tumors
There are a bewildering number of bone tumors with a wide variety of radiological appearances. For a formal and updated classification of bone tumors, see WHO classification of tumors of bone.
bone-forming tumors
osteoma
osteoid osteoma
osteoblastoma
osteosarcoma
cartilage-forming tumors
...
Article
Medial collateral ligament injury grading
Medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries are graded into three groups on MRI, much in the same way as many other ligaments:
grade 1: (minor sprain) high signal is seen medial (superficial) to the ligament, which looks normal
grade 2: (severe sprain or partial tear) high signal is seen medial ...
Article
Microtia
Microtia refers to a small pinna of the ear, when is it completely absent it is termed anotia.
Epidemiology
The estimated incidence at around 1:9000 live births. It is more common in males and there is a recognized right sided predilection.
Pathology
Associations
Microtia can be associated ...
Article
WHO classification of tumors of soft tissue
The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of soft tissue tumors is the most widely used pathology-based classification system for such disorders. The current revision, part of the 5th edition of the WHO classification of soft tissue and bone tumors (volume 3), was published in 2020 and ...
Article
Triplane fracture
Triplane or triplanar fractures are of the distal tibia only occurring in adolescents. As the physiological closure of the physeal plate begins medially, the lateral (open) physis is prone to this type of fracture. Most authors regard it as a type 4 Salter-Harris fracture.
It comprises of:
a ...
Article
Stahl classification of Kienböck disease
The Stahl classification of Kienböck disease, modified by Lichtman, is the most commonly used staging system and is useful in the treatment of Kienböck disease (osteonecrosis of the lunate).
This system divides the disease into four stages, and is for the radiographic changes:
stage I: normal...
Article
Mason classification of radial head fractures
The Mason classification ( sometimes known as Mason-Johnston classification) is used to classify radial head fractures and is useful when assessing further treatment options 1-2.
type I: non-displaced radial head fractures (or small marginal fractures), also known as a "chisel" fracture
type I...
Article
Neer classification of proximal humeral fractures
The Neer classification of proximal humeral fractures is probably the most frequently used system along with the AO classification of proximal humeral fractures. The terminology and factors which influence the classification are essential for the utility of radiology reports of proximal humeral ...
Article
Pulmonary nodule
Pulmonary nodules are small, rounded opacities within the pulmonary interstitium. Pulmonary nodules are common and, as the spatial resolution of CT scanners has increased, detection of smaller and smaller nodules has occurred, which are more often an incidental finding.
Classification
Pulmonar...
Article
Occipital condyle fracture
Occipital condylar fractures are uncommon injuries usually resulting from high-energy blunt trauma. They are considered a specific type of basilar skull fracture, and importantly can be seen along with craniocervical dissociation.
Treatment of isolated injury is generally conservative, unless t...
Article
Diffuse axonal injury (grading)
Grading of diffuse axonal injury due to trauma is described according to the anatomic distribution of injury. Contrary to the implication of the word "diffuse," diffuse axonal injury has a topological predilection for focal involvement of certain sites in the brain. These sites, in turn, vary in...
Article
Pancreatic trauma injury grading
A number of pancreatic injury grading systems have been proposed for pancreatic trauma.
Classifications
American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) 5,7
The proximal pancreas is defined as the gland to the right of the superior mesenteric vein (SMV)-portal vein axis whereas the dista...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS)
BI-RADS (Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System) is a risk assessment and quality assurance tool developed by American College of Radiology that provides a widely accepted lexicon and reporting schema for imaging of the breast. It applies to mammography, ultrasound, and MRI. This article refle...
Article
Gradman and Steinburg inferior vena cava aneurysm classification
Gradman and Steinburg inferior vena cava aneurysm classification is one method of classifying aneurysmal dilatation of the inferior vena cava, which is an uncommon finding. When present, it can be often associated with other caval anomalies. Gradman and Steinburg method classifies them as 1:
ty...
Article
Lunate morphology
Several classification systems exist for the lunate morphology 1, 2.
Classification
The lunate classification proposed by Viegas et al. is arguably the most relevant 3:
type I lunate: single distal articular facet for the capitate
type II lunate: additional distal articular facet medially f...
Article
Classification of spinal meningeal cysts
Spinal meningeal cysts can be classified according to a system published by Nabor et al. 2:
type I: extradural meningeal cyst without neural tissue
type Ia: extradural spinal arachnoid cyst
type Ib: sacral meningocele
type II: extradural meningeal cyst containing neural tissue, e.g. Tarlov c...
Article
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (overview)
Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) are common, being the sixth most common cancer. They can have a cutaneous or mucosal origin. As such there is a wide array of clinical and radiographic manifestations, and are separated into:
squamous cell carcinoma of the skin of the head and nec...
Article
Inner ear malformations (classification)
Inner ear malformations are a spectrum of congenital anomalies involving the inner ear structures with an emphasis on the cochlea due to their implications for sensorineural hearing loss.
Classification
An imaging-based classification was first proposed in 1987 by Jackler et al. according to p...
Article
Arnold-Hilgartner classification of haemophilic arthropathy
Arnold-Hilgartner classification is a plain radiograph grading system for haemophilic arthropathy of the knee 1,2:
stage 0: normal joint
stage I: no skeletal abnormalities, soft-tissue swelling is present
stage II: osteoporosis and overgrowth of the epiphysis, no cysts, no narrowing of the ca...
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