Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
559 results found
Article
Ultrasound assessment of carotid arterial atherosclerotic disease
Ultrasound assessment of carotid arterial atherosclerotic disease has become the first choice for carotid artery stenosis screening, permitting the evaluation of both the macroscopic appearance of plaques as well as flow characteristics in the carotid artery.
This article focus on internal caro...
Article
Osteogenesis imperfecta classification
Several forms of osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) have been classified, representing a wide variation in appearance and severity, and clinical features vary widely not only between types but within types.
Classification
Osteogenesis imperfecta was initially classified by type according to a scheme...
Article
WHO classification of haematolymphoid tumors
The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of haematolymphoid tumors is the most widely used pathologic classification system for hematopoietic and lymphoid neoplasms. The current revision 1, known as the 5th edition, was published in 2022 and supersedes the 4th edition revised published...
Article
WHO classification of thymic tumors
The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of tumors of the thymus is a component of the WHO classification of thoracic tumors, which was published in its 5th edition in 2021 1. It is a pathological classification of thymic epithelial tumors, including thymomas, thymic carcinomas, and ne...
Article
Gleason score
The histological grading of prostate cancer has undergone many revisions, and for many years the primary system was the Gleason score, itself derived from the Gleason grade. In 2014, the Grade Group was introduced, and care must be taken to not confuse this with the Gleason grade.
The Gleason g...
Article
Pulmonary hypertension (2003 classification)
There are numerous causes of pulmonary hypertension, and thus not surprisingly there have been many classification systems.
In 2003, the 3rd World Symposium on PAH met in Venice and produced an updated classification system (this has been further revised in the Dana Point classification of pulm...
Article
WHO histological classification of benign renal neoplasms
Benign renal tumors were histologically classified according to the World Health Organizatiοn 1. This is the subset of entities in the 2016 WHO classification of renal tumors that are associated with an International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) behavior code of 0, indicating...
Article
Cyanotic congenital heart disease
A number of entities can present as cyanotic congenital heart disease. These can be divided into those with increased (pulmonary plethora) or decreased pulmonary vascularity:
increased pulmonary vascularity
total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) (types I and II)
transposition of the ...
Article
Necrotizing enterocolitis (staging)
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) can be staged into three groups, to guide appropriate treatment based on the work of Bell et al. 1. In general, stage I and II are managed medically whereas stage III is managed surgically.
stage I
clinical signs
lethargy, temperature instability, apnea, bradyc...
Article
Hepatoblastoma histological classification
Although hepatoblastomas can be histologically classified into a variety of subtypes, it is important to remember that with the possible exception of small cell undifferentiated subtype, prognosis is independent of histology when adjusted for stage gender and age 1.
major categories
epithelial...
Article
Lasjaunias classification of vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations
The Lasjaunias classification, at the time of writing (mid 2016), is one of the two commonly used systems for classifying vein of Galen malformations. It relies on dividing the entity into choroidal or mural types, depending on the number and origin of feeding arteries.
Classification
choroid...
Article
Esophageal atresia (classification)
Esophageal atresia is closely related to tracheo-esophageal fistula and can be divided into1:
type A: isolated esophageal atresia (8%)
type B: proximal fistula with distal atresia (1%)
type C: proximal atresia with distal fistula (85%)
type D: double fistula with intervening...
Article
Slipped upper femoral epiphysis - grading
Grading of SUFE (slipped upper femoral epiphysis) can be made on both AP and true lateral projections.
On an AP radiograph a line along the superior margin of the femoral neck (line of Klein) should intersect the lateral corner of the epiphysis.
As the epiphysis slips, the metaphysis can be d...
Article
Germinal matrix hemorrhage (grading)
Grading of germinal matrix hemorrhage has taken several forms over the years. The most commonly used system is the sonographic grading system proposed by Burstein, Papile, et al.
Classification
grade I
restricted to subependymal region/germinal matrix which is seen in the caudothalamic groov...
Article
Osteochondritis dissecans (surgical staging)
Osteochondritis dissecans can be classified at surgery into 4 stages:
stage I
stable
lesion in continuity with the host bone
covered by intact cartilage
stage II
stable on probing
partial discontinuity of the lesion from the host bone
stage III
unstable on probing
fragment not dislocat...
Article
Cardiomyopathy (WHO/ISFC 1995 classification)
Cardiomyopathy classification separates the various cardiomyopathies into several subtypes. Cardiomyopathy is defined as a "disease of the myocardium with associated cardiac dysfunction".
It was initially classified according to the 1995 World Health Organizatiοn / International Society and Fed...
Article
Brasfield scoring system
The Brasfield scoring system is a scoring system for patients with cystic fibrosis. The score is based on conventional chest radiographic findings and has been reported to have good correlation with pulmonary function. There can be intra- and interobserver variability between radiologists.
Ther...
Article
Schatzker classification of tibial plateau fractures
Schatzker classification system is one method of classifying tibial plateau fractures.
Increase in type number denotes increasing severity, reflecting an increase in energy imparted to the bone at the time of injury and also an increasingly worse prognosis 1. The most common fracture of the tib...
Article
Classification of gamekeeper thumb
This classification of gamekeeper's thumb (also known as skier's thumb) was proposed by Hintermann et al. 1 in 1993 and is based on whether a fracture is present and whether the injury is stable:
type I
fracture present, which is non-displaced and stable in flexion
typically treated with a sp...
Article
Waldenström classification of Perthes disease
The Waldenström classification of Perthes disease refers to x-ray abnormalities and represents four temporal phases of the disease. These stages have been further subdivided in the modified Elizabethtown classification 2.
stage I: early
asymmetric femoral epiphyseal size (smaller on the affect...
Article
Capsulolabral insertion classification
Capsulolabral insertion classification reflects the variation in the relationship between the glenoid labrum and the attachment of the anteroinferior shoulder joint capsule.
Classification
This classification was originally described by Mosely and Övergaard in 1962 on cadavers 3 but has since ...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 6
BI-RADS 6 is one of seven categories of the ACR (American College of Radiology) BI-RADS system and is defined as known biopsy-proven malignancy. This category is used when:
imaging is performed post percutaneous biopsy that demonstrated a malignancy but prior to definitive therapy1
imaging dem...
Article
Ranson criteria
Ranson criteria are useful in assessing prognosis in early acute pancreatitis. The more of the criteria are met the higher the mortality. Ranson criteria are assessed both at admission and at 48 hours.
Criteria
On admission
age: >55 years
white blood count: >16 000/mL
blood glucose level: >...
Article
Autoimmune pancreatitis (diagnostic criteria)
There are several sets of diagnostic criteria for autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP), with some overlap and contradictions.
Several different sets of diagnostic criteria are in use 4.
Asian 2008 AIP diagnostic criteria
both criteria I to be fulfilled
one criterion II
consistent histology
The cr...
Article
Bismuth-Corlette classification
The Bismuth-Corlette classification is a classification system for perihilar cholangiocarcinomas, which is based on the extent of ductal infiltration.
Classification
type I
limited to the common hepatic duct, below the level of the confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts
type II
in...
Article
Bethesda criteria of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer
The Bethesda criteria are an alternative to the Amsterdam criteria for the clinical diagnosis of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Diagnosis of HNPCC is made if any of the following criteria are fulfilled:
Amsterdam criteria are met
2 or more HNPCC related malignancies
pa...
Article
Amsterdam criteria for HNPCC
The Amsterdam criteria are used in the diagnosis hereditary non polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Amsterdam Criteria I
Initial description in 1991:
> or equal to 3 relatives with colorectal cancer (CRC)
> or equal to 1 case in a first degree relative
> or equal to 2 successive generation...
Article
Retrotrochlear eminence
The retrotrochlear eminence is located posterior to the peroneal tubercle and the peroneal tendons.
It is one of two bony projections or protuberances that may be seen arising from the lateral wall of the calcaneum, the other being the peroneal tubercle.
It is seen to be prominent in individua...
Article
Peroneal tubercle
The peroneal tubercle (also known as the peroneal trochlea) is one of the two bony projections or protuberances that may be seen on the lateral aspect of the calcaneus, the other one being the retrotrochlear eminence.
The peroneal tubercle is present immediately inferior to the fibular malleolu...
Article
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a type of cardiomyopathy defined by left ventricular hypertrophy which cannot otherwise be explained by another cardiac or systemic disease. It is the leading cause of sudden cardiac death in infants, teenagers, and young adults.
Terminology
Although hypert...
Article
Tuberous sclerosis (diagnostic criteria)
The tuberous sclerosis diagnostic criteria have been developed to aid the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis and have been updated in 2012 by the International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group (at time of writing - 2019) 1.
Criteria
Genetic criteria
The identification of either a TSC1...
Article
Normal bone marrow signal of the clivus
Bone marrow signal of the clivus changes predictably with age and is well assessed with midline T1 non-fat-saturated, non-contrast images. As is seen in the rest of the body the proportion of yellow (fatty) marrow increases with age. Knowledge of these changes allows the diagnosis of the abnorma...
Article
Odontoid fracture
Odontoid process fracture, also known as a peg or dens fracture, occurs where there is a fracture through the odontoid process of C2.
Pathology
The mechanism of injury is variable, and can occur both during flexion or extension, and with or without compression 5.
Classification
There are two...
Article
Müllerian duct anomaly classification
The Müllerian duct anomaly classification is a seven-class system that can be used to describe a number of embryonic Müllerian duct anomalies:
class I: uterine agenesis/uterine hypoplasia
a: vaginal (uterus: normal/variety of abnormal forms)
b: cervical
c: fundal
d: tub...
Article
Bailey classification of second branchial cleft cysts
The Bailey classification of second branchial cleft cysts defines the anatomic location of second branchial cleft cysts in four categories, from superficial to deep. This classification was initially proposed by Bailey in 1929 2 and remains the most widely used classification system because it g...
Article
Osteoarthritis of the hip (grading)
Osteoarthritis of the hip can be graded according to its severity.
Classification
Plain radiograph
Different grading schemes are described for plain radiographs of the hip:
grade 0: normal
grade 1: possible joint space narrowing and subtle osteophytes
grade 2: definite joint space narrowin...
Article
Kuwada classification of Achilles tendon tear
The Kuwada classification of Achilles tendon tear was proposed in 1990 4 and remains the most widely used system for describing Achilles tendon rupture.
Classification
Achilles tendon tears may be grouped (according to severity of the tear and degree of retraction) into four types:
type I: p...
Article
Hereditary connective tissue disease
Hereditary connective tissue diseases are an enlarging group of connective tissue diseases that have a degree of inheritance risk. They include:
Marfan syndrome: genetic disease causing abnormal fibrillin
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome: progressive deterioration of collagen and affects joints, heart ...
Article
Apgar score
Apgar score was originally described by Virginia Apgar (American anaesthesiologist, 1909-1974) in 1952.
Helpfully, her surname is also a useful mnemonic for remembering the 5 factors: each is graded as 0, 1 or 2 with a total possible score of 10. The lower the score the worse the prognosis.
Th...
Article
Palmer classification of TFCC abnormalities
Palmer classification for triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) abnormalities is based on the cause, location, and degree of injury 1:
Class 1 - traumatic injury
a: central perforation of the triangular fibrocartilage (TFC) disc proper
b: ulnar avulsion with or without distal ulnar fractur...
Article
Yasargil classification of vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations
The Yasargil classification is one of the two common systems for classifying vein of Galen malformations that is currently in use at the time of writing (mid 2016).
Classification
type I: small pure cisternal fistula between the vein of Galen (voG) and either the pericallosal arteries (anteri...
Article
Thoracic sarcoidosis (staging)
Thoracic sarcoidosis can be staged on a chest radiograph with implications for prognosis although HRCT and FDG-PET provide more information to help guide treatment.
Usage
Chest radiographs have been the mainstay of staging thoracic sarcoidosis for many decades with fair interobserver concord...
Article
ASIA impairment scale for spinal injury
The American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) was developed by the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) in 2006, was revised in 2011, and remains the most widely used neurologic classification of spinal cord injury.
Classification
The scale divides spinal cord injuries int...
Article
Alberta stroke programme early CT score (ASPECTS)
The Alberta stroke program early CT score (ASPECTS) 1 is a 10-point quantitative topographic CT scan score used for middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke patients. It has also been adjusted for the posterior circulation (see below).
Scoring system
Segmental estimation of the middle cerebral art...
Article
Small for date fetus
A small for dates fetus can result from a number of factors
Fetal factors
aneuploidy
trisomy
triploidy
skeletal dysplasia(s)
structural anomalies (syndromes)
Maternal factors
Common
hypertension
medication(s):
fetal Warfarin syndrome
hydantoin embryopathy (Dilantin TM)
cytotoxic dru...
Article
Bouthillier classification of internal carotid artery segments
Alain Bouthillier et al. described a seven segment internal carotid artery classification system in 1996 1. It remains the most widely used system for describing the internal carotid artery segments.
A helpful mnemonic for remembering ICA segments is:
C'mon Please Learn Carotid Clinical Organ...
Article
Ovarian cyst
Ovarian cysts are commonly encountered in gynecological imaging and vary widely in etiology from physiological to complex benign to neoplastic.
Pathology
Small cystic ovarian structures should be considered normal ovarian follicles unless the patient is pre-pubertal, post-menopausal, pregnant,...
Article
Couinaud classification of hepatic segments
The Couinaud classification (French eponym: pronounced kwee-NO) is currently the most widely used system to describe functional liver anatomy. It is the preferred anatomy classification system as it divides the liver into eight independent functional units (termed segments) rather than relying o...
Article
Galassi classification of middle cranial fossa arachnoid cysts
The Galassi classification of middle cranial fossa arachnoid cysts is used to classify arachnoid cysts in the middle cranial fossa, which account for 50-60% of all arachnoid cysts 1. Galassi et al. published this classification in 1982, and at the time of writing (June 2016), it remains the most...
Article
Cognard classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas
The Cognard classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (dAVF) correlates venous drainage patterns with increasingly aggressive neurological clinical course and stratifies the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage. It was first described in 1995 1 and at the time of writing (July 2016) is probably...
Article
Barrow classification of caroticocavernous fistulae
Barrow caroticocavernous fistula classification divides caroticocavernous fistulas into direct (type A) or indirect (types B-D). This classification was proposed by Barrow et al. in 1985 1 and at the time of writing (mid-2016) remains the most widely used system for describing caroticocavernous ...
Article
WFNS grading system
The WFNS subarachnoid hemorrhage grading system, proposed in 1988 by the World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies uses the Glasgow Coma Scale and the presence of focal neurological deficits to grade the clinical severity of subarachnoid hemorrhage 1.
In 2016 a modified grading system was pr...
Article
Hunt and Hess grading system
The Hunt and Hess scale describes the clinical severity of subarachnoid hemorrhage resulting from the rupture of an intracerebral aneurysm and is used as a predictor of survival.
grade 1
asymptomatic or minimal headache and slight neck stiffness
70% survival
grade 2
moderate to severe heada...
Article
Fisher scale
The Fisher scale is the initial and best known system of classifying the amount of subarachnoid hemorrhage on CT scans, and is useful in predicting the occurrence and severity of cerebral vasospasm, highest in grade 3 2.
Numerous other scales have been proposed, incorporating various parameter...
Article
Fibromuscular dysplasia classification
Fibromuscular dysplasia is classified into 5 categories according to the vessel wall layer affected:
intima
intimal fibroplasia (1%)
media
medial dysplasia (70%, the commonest type)
perimedial (subadventitial) fibroplasia (15-20%)
medial hyperplasia (8-10%)
adventitia
adventital fibro...
Article
Suzuki staging system for Moyamoya
The staging system for moyamoya disease first described by Suzuki and Takaku in their seminal 1969 article 1 is still in use today. Formally, the staging refers to findings on conventional angiography, although there are efforts to apply similar systems to MR angiography 2.
Suzuki stage appears...
Article
Graf method for ultrasound classification of developmental dysplasia of the hip
The Graf method for ultrasound classification system for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in infants describes both alpha and beta angles.
As a general rule, the alpha angle determines the type, and the beta angle determines the subtype. The angle is formed by the acetabular roof to the...
Article
Weber classification of ankle fractures
The Weber ankle fracture classification (or Danis-Weber classification) is a simple system for classification of lateral malleolar fractures, relating to the level of the fracture in relation to the ankle joint, specifically the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis. It has a role in determining treat...
Article
WHO classification of CNS tumors
The WHO classification of CNS tumors is the most widely accepted system for classifying CNS tumors, now into its 5th edition, traditionally published in a blue cover (thus "blue book").
Although traditionally based on histological characteristics of the tumors, since the 2016 revised 4th editio...
Article
WHO classification of odontogenic and maxillofacial bone tumors
The WHO classification of odontogenic and maxillofacial bone tumors, last published in 2017, is a subset of the WHO classification of head and neck tumors (4th edition), which lays out a histological classification system for neoplasms and other tumors related to the odontogenic apparatus.
Clas...
Article
Vesicoureteric reflux (grading)
Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) grading divides vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) according to the height of reflux up the ureters and degree of dilatation of the ureters:
grade 1: reflux limited to the ureter
grade 2: reflux up to the renal pelvis
grade 3: mild dilatation of ureter and pe...
Article
Transitional cell carcinoma grading
Transitional cell carcinomas of the urothelium are graded histologically as follows:
transitional cell papilloma
benign tumor, not a carcinoma but sometimes included in classification systems
carcinoma in situ
do not penetrate the basement membrane
cells resemble those of grade II or III t...
Article
Tillaux fracture
Tillaux fractures are Salter-Harris III fractures through the anterolateral aspect of the distal tibial epiphysis, with variable amounts of displacement.
Epidemiology
It occurs in older children and adolescents when the medial aspect of the distal tibial growth plate has started to fuse.
Path...
Article
Supracondylar humeral fracture
Supracondylar humeral fractures, often simply referred to as supracondylar fractures, are a classic pediatric injury which requires vigilance as imaging findings can be subtle.
Epidemiology
Simple supracondylar fractures are typically seen in younger children, and are uncommon in adults; 90% a...
Article
Stanford classification of aortic dissection
The Stanford classification, along with the DeBakey classification, is used to separate aortic dissections into those that need surgical repair, and those that usually require only medical management 7.
Both the Stanford and DeBakey systems can be used to describe all forms of an acute aortic s...
Article
AAST spleen injury scale
The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) splenic injury scale, most recently revised in 2018, is currently the most widely used grading system for splenic trauma.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criter...
Article
Spondylolisthesis grading system
A commonly adopted method of grading the severity of spondylolisthesis is the Meyerding classification. It divides the superior endplate of the vertebra below into 4 quarters. The grade depends on the location of the posteroinferior corner of the vertebra above.
This classification was original...
Article
Spetzler-Martin arteriovenous malformation grading system
The Spetzler-Martin arteriovenous malformation (AVM) grading system allocates points for various angiographic features of intracranial arteriovenous malformations to give a score that predicts the morbidity/mortality risk of surgery 5.
Grading
The grading system requires correlation between C...
Article
Situs classification
Situs classification (plural: sitūs) or body situs can be a daunting topic, but it falls into three main groups:
situs solitus: the normal configuration of thoracic and abdominal organs
situs inversus: mirror image of the normal configuration
situs ambiguus (heterotaxy): an intermediate confi...
Article
Salter-Harris classification
The Salter-Harris classification was proposed by Salter and Harris in 1963 1 and, at the time of writing (January 2023) remains the most widely used system for describing physeal fractures.
Classification
Conveniently the Salter-Harris types can be remembered by the mnemonic SALTR.
type I
s...
Article
Scheuermann disease
Scheuermann disease, also known as juvenile kyphosis, juvenile discogenic disease 11, or vertebral epiphysitis, is a common condition which results in kyphosis of the thoracic or thoracolumbar spine. The diagnosis is usually made on plain radiograph.
Epidemiology
occurs in ~5% (range 0.4-8%...
Article
Sacroiliitis grading (New York criteria)
Sacroiliitis grading can be achieved using plain radiographs according to the New York criteria 1,2. A patient is considered positive for radiographic sacroiliitis if the score is greater than or equal to grade II bilaterally or greater than or equal to grade III unilaterally 3.
Classification
...
Article
Rotator cuff tear grading (MRI)
One method of grading rotator cuff tears on MRI is as follows:
grade 0: normal
grade I: increased T2 signal with normal morphology
grade II: increased T2 signal with abnormal morphology (thickening, or irregularity of the tendon)
grade III: defined tear (e.g. partial or full-thickness, compl...
Article
AAST kidney injury scale
The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) renal injury scale, most recently updated in 2018, is the most widely used grading system for renal trauma.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criteria for viscera...
Article
Pulmonary edema grading
One pulmonary edema grading based on chest radiograph appearances and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) is as follows:
grade 0: normal chest radiograph, PCWP 8-12 mmHg
grade 1: shows evidence of upper lobe diversion on a chest radiograph, PCWP 13-18 mmHg
grade 2: shows interstitial ed...
Article
Pulmonary artery stenosis types
Pulmonary artery stenosis refers to a narrowing of the pulmonary artery or pulmonary trunk and can be classified into several types 1,2:
type I: involving the main pulmonary artery (pulmonary trunk)
type II: involving bifurcation
type III: multiple peripheral stenoses
type IV: central and pe...
Article
Polymicrogyria
Polymicrogyria is one of many malformations of cortical development (see classification system for cortical malformations), and along with grey matter heterotopias, falls under a group of conditions characterized by abnormalities both in the migration of neurons to the cortex and abnormal cortic...
Article
Osteochondral injury staging
Osteochondral injury staging system for MRI attempts to grade the stability and severity of osteochondral injury and is used to plan management.
stage I
injury limited to articular cartilage
MRI findings: subchondral edema
x-ray findings: none
stage II
cartilage injury with associated subc...
Article
Nottingham classification
The Nottingham classification is used at the end of work up of a breast lesion to help guide management.
A = malignant
lesion needs surgical excision regardless of biopsy result
B = indeterminate
will accept a benign biopsy result, but only if it is congruent with imaging, i.e. a well circum...
Article
Lymph node levels of the neck
The lymph nodes in the neck have historically been divided into at least six anatomic neck lymph node levels for the purpose of head and neck cancer staging and therapy planning. Differing definitions exist across specialties 1-4. The following is a synthesis of radiologically useful boundaries ...
Article
AAST liver injury scale
The AAST (American Association for the Surgery of Trauma) liver injury scale, most recently revised in 2018, is the most widely used liver injury grading system 3.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criteria for visceral ...
Article
Hinchey classification of acute diverticulitis
The Hinchey classification for acute diverticulitis (anywhere along the bowel, not just the colon) has been variously adapted and modified since its original description, and is useful not only in academia but also in outlining successive stages of severity 3,5,6. Adoption and utility of the va...
Article
Garden classification of hip fractures
The Garden classification of subcapital femoral neck fractures is the most widely used. It is simple and predicts the development of osteonecrosis 1,2. Garden described particular femoral neck and acetabular trabeculae patterns which can assist in recognizing differences within this classificati...
Article
Le Fort fracture classification
Le Fort fractures are fractures of the midface, which collectively involve separation of all or a portion of the midface from the skull base. In order to be separated from the skull base, the pterygoid plates of the sphenoid bone need to be involved as these connect the midface to the sphenoid b...
Article
Classification of endoleaks
Endoleaks occur when an aneurysmal sac continues to be pressurised despite endoluminal stent placement. See the full article on endoleaks here.
Classification
There are five types:
type I: leak at graft ends (inadequate seal) - most common after repair of thoracic aortic aneurysms 4
...
Article
DeBakey classification
The DeBakey classification, along with the Stanford classification, is used to separate aortic dissections into those that need surgical repair, and those that usually require only medical management.
Both the Stanford and DeBakey systems can be used to describe all forms of the acute aortic sy...
Article
Congenital cardiovascular anomalies
Congenital cardiovascular anomalies are relatively common, with an incidence of up to 1% if small muscular ventricular septal defects (VSDs) are included. As a group, there is a much greater frequency in syndromic infants and in those that are stillborn.
Epidemiology
In a large study in the U...
Article
Modified Outerbridge grading of chondromalacia
The modified Outerbridge grading of chondromalacia is divided into four grades by MRI, typically using fat-saturated proton density sequences. This grading system was originally devised for arthroscopy initially for assessment of chondromalacia patellae, but then modified and extended for all ch...
Article
Mayfield classification of carpal instability (perilunate instability)
Mayfield classification of carpal instability, also known as perilunate instability classification (carpal dislocations), describes carpal ligament injuries.
Instability has been divided into four stages 1-2:
stage I: scapholunate dissociation (rotatory subluxation of the scaphoid)
disruptio...
Article
Bosniak classification system of renal cystic masses
The Bosniak classification system of renal cystic masses divides renal cystic masses into five categories based on imaging characteristics on contrast-enhanced CT. It helps predict a risk of malignancy and suggests either follow up or treatment.
Usage
The Bosniak classification is widely used ...
Article
Ficat and Arlet classification of osteonecrosis of the femoral head
The Ficat and Arlet classification uses a combination of plain radiographs, MRI, and clinical features to stage osteonecrosis of the femoral head.
Classification
stage 0
plain radiograph: normal
MRI: normal
clinical symptoms: nil
stage I
plain radiograph: normal or minor osteopenia
MRI: ...
Article
Diffuse astrocytoma grading
Grading of diffuse astrocytic tumors in adults has been done according to a number of systems over the years, although by far the most popular now being the WHO grading system.
Historically these grading systems focussed on the presence or absence of a number of histological features, although ...
Article
Rockwood classification of acromioclavicular joint injury
The Rockwood classification (1998) is the most common (c.2020) classification system in use for acromioclavicular joint injuries 3,8.
Usage
This well known 6-type system is a modification of the earlier 3-class classification system described by Allman (1967) 2 and Tossy (1963). The Rockwood ...
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