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Midline shift

Midline shift is one of the most important indicators of increased intracranial pressure due to mass effect. Pathology Any intra-axial or extra-axial lesion (tumor, hemorrhage, abscess, etc.) has the potential to exert mass effect on the brain parenchyma and cause lateral shift of the midline ...

Perinephric fluid collection post renal transplant

Perinephric fluid collections post renal transplant are common. The appearance of a perinephric fluid collection after renal transplantation is often non-specific but may be partially differentiated by how long ago the transplant occurred. Radiographic features Early post-transplant period (<4...

Meningeal enhancement

Meningeal enhancement is a generic term related to the enhancement of the membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. Due the anatomical features, this enhancement can be divided in two subtypes: leptomeningeal enhancement (pial or pial-arachnoid enhancement) dural (pachymeningeal) enhan...

Tumors that metastasize to bone (mnemonic)

Tumors that metastasize to bone may be remembered using the mnemonic "PBKTL", rendered as "lead kettle", as "Pb" is the standard abbreviation for the chemical element, lead. PB-KTL Mnemonic P: prostate B: breast K: kidney T: thyroid L: lung For females, breast and lung are the most commo...

Complications of cranial radiotherapy

Complications of cranial radiation therapy are fairly common, particularly in long-term survivors, and especially in pediatric patients. Cranial radiotherapy is used for a variety of brain tumors, either in isolation or in combination with concurrent chemotherapy. Complications from irradiation...

Intracranial metastases

Intracranial metastases from non-CNS primary neoplasms are becoming more common due to significant advances in cancer treatment over the last few decades. Increasing numbers of patients live longer and present with metastasis in locations considered unusual previously: brain (parenchymal) metas...

Pituitary region masses (most common)

The five most common masses in the pituitary region are: pituitary macroadenoma meningioma aneurysm craniopharyngioma suprasellar pilocytic astrocytoma Craniopharyngioma and suprasellar pilocytic astrocytoma are common in children, and pituitary macroadenoma, meningioma, aneurysm are mostl...

Pleural adhesions

Pleural adhesions usually refers to the formation of fibrotic bands that span the pleural space, between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura. Pathology They may be local or diffuse. The presence of a pleural adhesion is one of the causes for a pneumothorax not to resolve. Etiology...

Patterns of neonatal hypoxic–ischemic brain injury

Neonatal hypoxic ischemic brain injuries can manifest in different patterns of involvement depending on the severity and timing of the insult. When considering the perinatal maturation process of the brain and the severity of an insult, it is possible to understand the various manifestations. T...

Multiple cranial nerve thickening and enhancement

The most common causes of multiple cranial nerve thickening and enhancement include: metastasis (most common) neurofibromatosis type II lymphoma and leukemia multiple sclerosis chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy Lyme disease See also cranial nerve enhancement: for comple...

Pancreatic atrophy

Pancreatic atrophy is non-specific and is common in elderly patients, although in younger patients it can be a hallmark of pathology. Most commonly it is associated with aging, obesity and end-stage chronic pancreatitis. It occurs principally with fatty replacement of the pancreas (pancreatic ...

Chronic encephalitides

There are several viral and prion infections which can result in a chronic encephalitis with slow progression into brain atrophy. These have a very poor prognosis with no effective treatment. Some of these include: progressive multifocal leukoencephalitis subacute sclerosing panencephalitis ...

Cardiovascular shunts

Cardiovascular (cardiac) shunts are abnormal connections between the pulmonary and systemic circulations. Most commonly they are the result of congenital heart disease. Pathology Blood can either be shunted from the systemic circulation to pulmonary circulation (i.e. 'left-to-right shunt') or ...

Cyst-like lesions around the knee

There is broad differential for cyst-like lesions around the knee. Differential diagnosis Cysts synovial cyst popliteal synovial cyst - Baker cyst ganglion cyst intra-articular ganglion cyst ACL ganglion cyst PCL ganglion cyst Hoffa fat pad ganglion cyst extra-articular ganglion cyst ...

Fetal ventriculomegaly (differential)

Fetal ventriculomegaly (ventricle width >10 mm) is an important finding in itself and it is also associated with other central nervous system abnormalities. For more information, see the main article fetal ventriculomegaly. Differential diagnosis Fetal ventriculomegaly can be thought of in ter...

Gracile bones

Gracile bones refer to changes in the skeleton in which the bones are more slender than usual (over-tubulated) and occasionally deformed in other ways such as being abnormally curved. This may occur in a number of disorders and can occur with or without fractures. Pathology Etiology neurofibr...

Viral encephalitides

Viral encephalitides are the result of brain parenchymal infection by a number of different viruses, many of which have similar presentations and imaging features. Specific diagnosis often requires PCR. For viral infection of the meninges, please refer to the general article on viral meningiti...

Bile duct wall thickening (differential)

Thickening of the bile duct wall can stem from a variety of etiologies. Radiographic features Ultrasound bile duct wall thickening bile duct walls are typically not visible when normal possible narrowing of the ducts with obstruction possible secondary signs of cholangitis, including debri...

Bile duct dilatation

Bile duct dilatation refers to the dilatation of intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts. Clinical presentation Variable, depending on the underlying cause, but usually: right upper quadrant pain jaundice Radiographic features Ultrasound Harmonic imaging is useful when assessing the bilia...

Pencil-in-cup deformity

Pencil-in-cup deformity is the description given to one of the appearances on plain radiographs classically associated with psoriatic arthritis; however, it is not pathognomonic. Radiographic features The appearance results from periarticular erosions and bone resorption giving the appearance ...

Supernumerary ribs

Supernumerary ribs occur most commonly as a cervical rib arising from C7 or a lumbar rib arising from L1. In extremely rare situations, there can be sacral, coccygeal, intrathoracic, or aberrant lumbar ribs 3. Rarely supernumerary ribs (cervical and lumbar ribs aside) have been found as 'normal'...

Focal gallbladder wall thickening (differential)

Focal gallbladder wall thickening is an imaging finding that includes both benign and malignant etiologies. cholecystoses cholesterolosis adenomyomatosis masses gallbladder polyps gallbladder carcinoma: look for infiltration into adjacent organs, metastases, lymphadenopathy, bile duct dil...

≤11 ribs (differential)

≤11 ribs is associated with a number of congenital abnormalities and skeletal dysplasias, including: Down syndrome (trisomy 21) campomelic dysplasia kyphomelic dysplasias asphyxiating thoracic dysplasia (Jeune syndrome) short rib polydactyly syndromes trisomy 18 chromosome 1q21.1 deletion...

Transtentorial herniation

Transtentorial herniation is a type of cerebral herniation broadly divided into two major types based on the direction of herniation: downwards due to supratentorial mass effect and upward due to infratentorial mass effect. Downward transtentorial herniation Downward herniation occurs when the...

Suprasellar cystic lesions

The differential for suprasellar cystic lesions is large and predominantly includes developmental and neoplastic conditions. Differential diagnosis Developmental arachnoid cyst craniopharyngioma Rathke cleft cyst dermoid cyst epidermoid cyst ependymal cyst enlarged perivascular spaces ...

Vertical-banded gastroplasty

Vertical-banded gastroplasty (VBG) is an older, purely restrictive procedure used to treat morbid obesity. Procedure It involves creating a small gastric pouch, based on the lesser curvature of the stomach (which is thicker and less resistant to stretching than the greater curvature), by using...

Cystic hepatic metastases

Cystic hepatic metastases are included in the differential for new cystic liver lesions. The internal cystic component may represent necrosis as the tumor outgrows its hepatic blood supply, or it may represent a mucinous component, similar to the primary tumor. The liver and lungs are the most ...

Myonecrosis

Myonecrosis is a myopathy involving infarction of skeletal muscle and can have the appearances of an intramuscular mass. Pathology Etiology Myonecrosis represents an infarction of the skeletal muscles. It has a variety of causes 1-3: post-traumatic (see: calcific myonecrosis) - most common ...

Urinary bladder wall thickening

Urinary bladder wall thickening is a common finding and its significance depends on whether the bladder is adequately distended. Radiographic features Ultrasound In both adults and children, the wall may be considered thickened on ultrasound if it measures 6: >3 mm when distended (>25% expec...

Heterogeneous thyroid echotexture

Heterogeneous echogenicity of the thyroid gland is a non-specific finding and is associated with conditions diffusely affecting the thyroid gland. These include: Hashimoto thyroiditis Graves disease The presence of heterogenous thyroid echogenicity may reduce sensitivity of detection of thyro...

Dural masses

Dural masses can be the result of a number of different tumors and conditions, although meningiomas are by far the most common. The differential of a dural mass includes: meningioma solitary fibrous tumor of the dura (hemangiopericytoma) primary dural lymphoma Rosai-Dorfman disease primary ...

Erosion of superior aspects of ribs (differential)

Differential diagnosis of erosion of the superior aspects of the ribs include: hyperparathyroidism rheumatoid arthritis scleroderma neurofibromatosis poliomyelitis progeria

Pulmonary arterial calcification

Pulmonary arterial calcification is a phenomenon which is usually seen in the setting of advanced pulmonary hypertension. It can however be uncommonly present in those without pulmonary hypertension. Pathology The general mechanism in the vast majority is thought to be from high end pulmonary ...

Pulmonary fungal disease

Pulmonary fungal disease encompasses a broad spectrum of infections related to fungal sources. They can particularly affect immunocompromised individuals. These include: pulmonary aspergillosis: pulmonary aspergillus infection considered the most important in immunocompromised individual...

Malignant vs benign gastric ulcer (barium)

Barium meal has been frequently used to differentiate malignant and benign gastric ulcers: Features suggesting benign gastric ulcer outpouching of ulcer crater beyond the gastric contour (exoluminal) smooth rounded and deep ulcer crater smooth ulcer mound smooth gastric folds that reach the...

Increased renal echogenicity

Increased renal echogenicity is a non-specific finding but can represent a number of underlying conditions. These include: normal variation renal amyloidosis chronic kidney disease: increased cortical echogenicity sickle cell disease 4 HIV nephropathy See also echoge...

Hemolytic anemia

Hemolytic anemia is a form of anemia where red blood cells are destroyed faster than they can be replaced. This may happen either intravascularly or extravascularly. Clinical presentation The patient presents with anemia and jaundice. Diagnosis is based on several laboratory parameters 1: ret...

Mucoid impaction (lung)

Mucoid impaction, also referred to as mucus plugging, mucous plugging, bronchial mucocele or bronchocele formation, refers to airway filling by mucoid secretions and can be obstructive or non-obstructive. It is a common pathological finding in chest imaging. Pathology Etiology Mucoid impactio...

Calcified pulmonary embolus

Calcification associated with pulmonary emboli is usually associated with chronic pulmonary embolism. Calcification is occasionally related to prior congenital cardiac repairs 1. Differential diagnosis If it is purely high attenuating, consider polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) embolism into the ...

Right iliac fossa mass (differential)

Right iliac fossa mass is a common clinical presentation and has a range of differentials that need to be excluded. Radiology plays an important role in this differentiation. Differential diagnosis appendicular mass appendicular abscess appendicular mucocele appendicular neoplasms ileoceca...

Craniovertebral junction anomalies

Craniovertebral junction (CVJ) anomalies can be congenital, developmental or due to malformation secondary to any acquired disease process. These anomalies can lead to cranial nerve compression, vertebral artery compression, and obstructive hydrocephalus. Pathology The craniovertebral junction...

Cicatrisation atelectasis

Cicatrisation atelectasis is a form of lung atelectasis which occurs as a result of scarring or fibrosis that reduces lung expansion. Cicatrisation atelectasis is classic in tuberculosis. The term is closely related to cicatrisation collapse when an entire lobe is collapsed from the same process...

Endometrial microcalcifications

Endometrial microcalcifications can arise from a vast range pathologies but are usually of benign in etiology. They can also occur in the endocervical region (see - endocervical microcalcifications 1) Epidemiology They have an increased incidence with older age, postmenopausal state, atrophic ...

Valgus vs varus

The terms valgus and varus refer to angulation (or bowing) within the shaft of a bone or at a joint in the coronal plane. It is determined by the distal part being more medial or lateral than it should be. Whenever the distal part is more lateral, it is called valgus. Whenever the distal part i...

Floating meniscus

Floating meniscus (also known as meniscal avulsion) occurs in acute traumatic settings when the meniscotibial coronary ligaments get disrupted leading to avulsion of the meniscus from the tibial plateau. Radiographic features MRI Displacement of the meniscus for 5 mm or more from the tibial p...

Visceral artery aneurysm

Visceral artery aneurysms are abnormal focal dilatations of splanchnic arteries supplying abdominal organs. Visceral artery aneurysms include both true aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms. Owing to different clinical manifestations and a unique, specific, pathology, renal artery aneurysms are discuss...

Cystic lesions of the liver (differential)

Cystic lesions of the liver carry a broad differential diagnosis: simple cysts simple hepatic cyst biliary hamartoma Caroli disease adult polycystic liver disease ciliated hepatic foregut duplication cyst 6 infectious: inflammatory conditions hepatic abscess pyogenic hepatic abscess am...

Pulsatile exophthalmos

Pulsatile exophthalmos, a.k.a. pulsatile proptosis, is a clinical symptom characterized by protrusion - i.e. exophthalmos (proptosis) - and pulsation of the eyeball that can occur due to various causes: caroticocavernous fistulas neurofibromatosis type 1 (with sphenoid wing dysplasia) 2 arter...

Mediastinal lymph node enlargement

Mediastinal lymph node enlargement can occur from a wide range of pathologies, either by its own or in association with other lung pathology. Historically, a size cut-off of 10 mm short-axis diameter was used. Terminology Although mediastinal lymphadenopathy is used interchangeably - by some ...

Subpulmonic effusion

Subpulmonic effusions (also known as subpulmonary effusions) are pleural effusions that can be seen only on an erect projection. Rather than layering laterally and blunting of the costophrenic angle, the pleural fluid lies almost exclusively between the lung base and the diaphragm. Radiographic...

Subdiaphragmatic free gas

Subdiaphragmatic free gas is one of the ways of detecting presence of free intraperitoneal gas (i.e. pneumoperitoneum). It is the presence of free, extraluminal gas in the anterior subhepatic space. Radiographic features Plain radiograph Subdiaphragmatic free gas is well appreciated as the g...

Metaphyseal blanch sign

The metaphyseal blanch sign (or metaphyseal blanch sign of Steel) is one of the signs seen on AP views of the adolescent hip indicating posterior displacement of the capital epiphysis. It is a crescent-shaped area of increased density, that overlies the metaphysis adjacent to the physis on the ...

Flowing ossifications

Flowing ossifications are seen in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). They are defined as heterotopic ossifications involving the anterior longitudinal ligament, paraspinal connective tissues and annulus fibrosus of at least four contiguous vertebral bodies and are originally descri...

Parasyndesmophytes

Parasyndesmophytes or floating syndesmophytes are, as the name suggests, paravertebral dystrophic soft tissue calcifications or heterotopic ossifications. Pathology Etiology They are known to be seen in 4: psoriatic arthritis reactive arthritis Radiographic features Initially they begin ...

Hemoptysis

Hemoptysis (plural: hemoptyses) refers to coughing up of blood. Generally, it appears bright red in color as opposed to blood from the gastrointestinal tract which appears dark red. It is considered an alarming sign of a serious underlying etiology. Terminology A variety of clinical classifica...

Pure ground glass nodules

Pure ground glass lung nodules (pGGN's) are a subtype of ground glass lung nodules where there is no associated solid component. Pathology Etiology Apart from inflammatory foci they have been shown to represent various pathologies such as 1,3 adenocarcinoma in situ of lung minimally-invasiv...

Pseudocirrhosis

Pseudocirrhosis is a radiological term used to convey the imaging findings of cirrhosis, but emphasize that it occurs in the setting of hepatic metastases. It is most commonly reported following chemotherapeutic treatment of breast cancer metastases, although has also been reported before treatm...

Dural arteriovenous shunts

Dural arteriovenous shunts (DAVS) are rare congenital arteriovenous malformations (CAVMs). On the basis of clinical and anatomical features DAVS have three different types: dural sinus malformations (DSMs) infantile or juvenile DAVS (IDAVS) adult DAVS (ADAVS)

Coin lesion (lung)

A coin lesion refers to a round or oval, well-circumscribed solitary pulmonary lesion. It is usually 1-5 cm in diameter and calcification may or may not be present 1,3. Typically but not always the patient is asymptomatic 1. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis for such lesions i...

Vestibular line of Lapayowker

The vestibular line of Lapayowker refers to a vertical line passing down the most lateral aspect of vestibular apparatus. The petrous part of internal carotid artery lies medial to this line but lies lateral to it in the case of an aberrant internal carotid artery which is the characteristic ang...

Bronchial wall thickening

Bronchial wall thickening is an imaging descriptor used to describe abnormal thickening of bronchial walls and can arise from a vast number of pathological entities. It is one of the causes of peribronchial cuffing. The presence of bronchial wall thickening usually (but not always) implies infl...

Elevated diaphragm

Elevated diaphragm refers to the symmetrical elevation of both domes of the diaphragm. Pathology Etiology There is some overlap with causes of an elevated hemidiaphragm. Technical supine position poor inspiratory effort Patient factors obesity pregnancy Diaphragmatic pathology paral...

Splenic pseudocyst

Splenic pseudocysts, also known as secondary splenic cysts, are acquired cystic lesions not delineated by a true epithelial wall. They represent the majority of the splenic cystic lesions, corresponding to approximately 80% of them (cf. splenic epithelial cysts). The main causes are: sple...

Intracranial tumors with calcification

A variety of intracranial tumors exhibit different forms of calcification. Some lesions commonly show calcification while in some tumors, calcification is seen only in few number of cases. In this article these tumors are classified on the basis of frequency of calcification. Commonly calcified...

X-ray artifacts

X-ray artifacts can present in a variety of ways including abnormal shadows noted on a radiograph or degraded image quality, and have been produced by artificial means from hardware failure, operator error and software (post-processing) artifacts. There are common and distinct artifacts for fi...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules

Diffuse pulmonary nodules are usually seen as multiple pulmonary nodular opacifications on a HRCT chest scan. They can signify disease processes affecting either the interstitium or the airspace. They can range from a few millimeters to up to 1 cm and when very small and numerous there can be so...

Diffuse pulmonary nodules (differential diagnosis)

A number of differentials must be kept in mind while approaching diffuse or multiple pulmonary nodules. Interpretation is easier if nodules are the only abnormality. Differential diagnosis These differentials can be narrowed down based on several criteria: Based on appearance miliary nodule...

Solitary well-defined osteolytic lesion (differential)

Solitary well-defined osteolytic lesions can be seen with the following conditions 1,2: subchondral geodes or cysts intraosseous ganglion intraosseous tophus (gout) unicameral bone cyst aneurysmal bone cyst glomus tumor enchondroma epidermoid inclusion cyst chondroblastoma non-ossifyin...

Enlarged sella turcica (differential)

Enlargement of sella turcica can be seen in situations including the following: empty sella syndrome slight globular enlargement of the sella with no erosion, destruction or posterior displacement of dorsum sellae intracranial hypertension enlargement with erosion of anterior cortex of dorsu...

Solitary ill-defined osteolytic lesion (differential)

Ill-defined solitary osteolytic lesions can be caused by following entities 1: intraosseous hemangioma chondroblastoma osteoblastoma giant cell tumor fibrosarcoma of bone malignant fibrous histiocytoma chondrosarcoma osteosarcoma Ewing sarcoma angiosarcoma multiple myeloma bone metas...

Expansile lytic lesions without cortical destruction of bone (differential)

Expansile lytic bone lesions without cortical destruction can result from various benign and malignant neoplastic pathologies, causes include 1: unicameral bone cyst aneurysmal bone cyst (eccentric) enchondroma chondromyxoid fibroma (eccentric) non-ossifying fibroma (eccentric) desmoplasti...

Bridging of the pubic symphysis (differential)

Bridging (or fusion) of the pubic symphysis can be associated with various systemic and local causes, including 1-3: ankylosing spondylitis ochronosis fluorosis surgical fusion post-traumatic post-infectious post-radiation therapy osteoarthritis rheumatoid arthritis osteitis pubis myo...

Syndesmophyte

Syndesmophytes are calcifications or heterotopic ossifications inside a spinal ligament or of the annulus fibrosus. They are seen in only a limited number of conditions including: ankylosing spondylitis ochronosis fluorosis reactive arthritis psoriatic arthritis They can be ...

Temporal bone destructive lesions (differential)

Destructive lesions of the temporal bone (petrous pyramid, middle ear and antrum) have a relatively broad differential including 1: lesions affecting petrous pyramid vestibular schwannoma (acoustic neuroma) meningioma glioma neuroma of trigeminal and facial nerve chordoma glomus jugulare ...

Subcutaneous calcification (differential)

Subcutaneous calcification can be associated with a number of disorders. The list includes: dermatomyositis Ehlers-Danlos syndrome pseudoxanthoma elasticum basal cell nevus syndrome subcutaneous lipodystrophy venous thrombosis as a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus varicose v...

Hydroxyapatite deposition disease

Hydroxyapatite crystal deposition disease (HADD) or calcium apatite deposition disease (CADD) is a disease of uncertain etiology characterized by periarticular and intra-articular calcium deposits. The shoulder is the most frequently involved site with classic calcific tendinitis presentation. ...

Monoarticular arthropathy

Monoarticular arthropathy can result from a number of causes: Commonest 2: gout (15-27%) septic arthritis (8-27%) osteoarthritis (5-17%) rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (11-16%) Less common 2: traumatic arthritis HADD (hydroxyapatite deposition disease) reactive arthritis 2 avascular necrosi...

Polyarticular arthropathy

Polyarticular arthropathy can arise from a number of causes. The list includes osteoarthritis (OA) erosive osteoarthritis rheumatoid arthritis (RA) psoriatic arthritis reactive arthritis ankylosing spondylitis gout calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition disease (CPPD) hemochromatosi...

Erosive arthritis (differential)

Erosive arthritis has a broad differential: erosive osteoarthritis clinically an acute inflammatory attacks (swelling, erythema, pain) in postmenopausal women typically the interphalangeal joints, 1st carpometacarpal joint 6, but not the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints and large joints clas...

Periarticular soft tissue calcification

Common causes of periarticular soft tissue calcification include: myositis ossificans post surgical dystrophic calcification or heterotopic bone formation calcific tendinitis or bursitis gout CPPD HADD calcific periarthritis (fingers and toes) tuberculous arthritis scleroderma hyperpar...

Gasless abdomen

A gasless abdomen refers to a paucity of gas on abdominal radiography, and the specific cause can usually be identified when the patient's history is known. Common causes include: high obstruction: gastric outlet obstruction, congenital atresia small bowel obstruction bowel ischemia ascites ...

Cerebral restricted diffusion

The following intracranial lesions may show a high signal on DWI images, with a corresponding low signal on ADC images. lesions with intense high signal acute ischemia meningiomas abscess empyema cytotoxic cerebral edema chordoma intracranial epidermoid cyst Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 6 ...

Longitudinally extensive spinal cord lesion

Longitudinally extensive spinal cord lesions (LESCL), also known as longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM), represent extensive involvement of the spinal cord, with abnormal T2 signal traversing at least three vertebral body segments in length. Differential diagnosis They are typi...

Cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum (CLOCCs)

Cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum (CLOCCs) represent a collection of disparate conditions that can cause signal change in the corpus callosum, usually involving the splenium. Terminology The term cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum (CLOCCs) has been proposed recently 12 as a more ...

Trauma in pregnancy

Trauma is a leading cause of mortality in pregnancy. Pregnancy increases the incidence and severity of abdominal trauma in females. Epidemiology Trauma affects up to 7% of pregnancies, and the incidence of pregnancy in level 1 trauma patients is estimated to be ~2% 1. Pathology Etiology 9...

Widening of the presacral space (differential)

Widening of the presacral space is one of the diagnostic indicators of diseases involving pelvic pathology and rectal involvement. It is ideally measured on barium studies at the level of S3/4 disc level on lateral radiographs and the normal value of the presacral space is <15 mm in adults. Th...

Urinary bladder diverticulum

A urinary bladder diverticulum (plural: diverticula) is an outpouching from the bladder wall, whereby mucosa herniates through the bladder wall. It may be solitary or multiple in nature and can vary considerably in size. Epidemiology There are two peaks; one at 10 years and the other at 60-70 ...

Granulomatous lung disease

Granulomatous lung disease refers to a broad group of infectious and non-infectious conditions characterized by the formation of granulomas. The spectrum includes: infectious mycobacterial pulmonary tuberculosis pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection fungal pulmonary coccidioido...

Intraventricular metastases

Intraventricular metastases are a very rare finding. A few intracranial tumors and some extracranial tumors metastasize to the ventricles. The most common site of intraventricular metastasis is the trigone of the lateral ventricles due to high vascularity of the choroid plexuses. The next most c...

Fetal chylothorax

Fetal chylothorax is defined as the presence of lymphatic fluid within the pleural cavity of the fetus. Pathology Associations pulmonary hypoplasia hydrops fetalis premature delivery Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound may show echogenic fluid in the pleural cavities Treatment S...

Upper lobe pulmonary fibrosis

Upper lobe predominant pulmonary fibrosis can be associated with a number of pathologies. These include cystic fibrosis: see pulmonary manifestations of cystic fibrosis pulmonary sarcoidosis Langerhans cell histiocytosis pulmonary tuberculosis pneumoconioses, e.g. silicosis allergic bronch...

Wackenheims line

Wackenheims line (also known as the clivus canal line or basilar line) is formed by drawing a line along the clivus and extending it inferiorly to the upper cervical canal. Normally the tip of the dens is ventral and tangential to this line. In basilar invagination odontoid process transects th...

Exophytic hepatic mass

Exophytic hepatic mass or tumor is a lesion which predominantly lies outside the margins of liver but originates from within the liver. Pathology Causes include 1: benign hepatic hemangioma hepatic adenoma hepatic cyst hepatic angiomyolipoma focal nodular hyperplasia malignant hepati...

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