Articles

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Pelvic phlebography

Pelvic phlebography or pelvic venography is an interventional procedure, in which the pelvic and gonadal veins are opacified to assess venous and collateral system anatomy for the diagnosis, treatment and pre-operative planning of pelvic vein pathology. This procedure is usually performed at th...

Renal double curve catheter

The renal double curve catheter is an angiographic selective access catheter, designed for catheterisation and subselection of acutely originating renal arteries 1 through a femoral approach, in order to secure access, advance, exchange devices, or deliver contrast. It can also be used for the ...

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids are drugs/medications widely used in several areas of medicine. They are also known as glucocorticoids, cortisone and colloquially steroids (note: do not mix up with anabolic steroids). They are synthetic analogues of naturally occurring endogenous steroids produced by the adren...

Kumpe catheter

The Kumpe catheter, also known as KMP, is a selective access catheter designed for biliary and urinary tract cannulation, in order to secure access, navigate, advance, exchange devices, or deliver contrast in the target destination. Properties proximal end: luer lock hub distal tip-shape: ang...

Embolisation coils

Embolisation coils and microcoils are permanent proximal embolisation devices used in interventional procedures to block blood flow in medium to large-sized target vessels and pathological pathways. They consist of stainless steel, platinum, or Inconel (nickel-based super alloy) coils that can ...

Autologous blood clot - embolisation agent

The autologous blood clot or patch is a temporary embolisation agent adapted for large vessel occlusion procedures such as haemostatic embolisations but can also be used as a seal for a biopsy trajectory during lung and hepatic biopsies. Advantages biocompatible inexpensive simple, rapid, an...

Embolisation agents

Embolisation agents are materials and substances used during embolisation procedures in order to block blood flow, stop and prevent bleeding, devascularize organs, or occlude pathways. Temporary embolisation agents autologous blood clot 1 gel foam sponge or powder 2 starch microsphe...

Adrenal glands ultrasound

Adrenal glands ultrasound, is an imaging method that can provide valuable information regarding their size, shape, and structure. As a result, it can aid in diagnosing various pathological conditions related to adrenal gland function. Techniques Several ultrasound techniques can be employed to...

Renal cyst sclerotherapy

Renal cyst sclerotherapy is a minimally invasive procedure performed to treat symptomatic simple renal cysts (i.e. Bosniak I) and is one of the primary methods to treat renal cysts along with surgical cyst de-roofing 1. Note: This article is intended to outline some general principles of the pr...

Pigtail catheter

The pigtail catheter is an angiographic flush catheter used in interventional vascular procedures, to achieve high-flow injection rates (15 to 20 ml/s)1 into large vessels, to obtain optimal aortograms, and/or phlebograms. This article focuses only on angiographic catheters and the pigtail drai...

Radial artery access

Radial artery access is a minimally invasive approach for vascular access in interventional procedures. This route has widely been adopted since it reduced significantly the transfemoral-related complications. It is the recommended access route by the European Society of Cardiology for angiograp...

Splenic ultrasound

Splenic ultrasound is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging method that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualise and assess the size, shape, structure, and potential abnormalities of the spleen. Indication trauma: splenic injuries resulting from accidents, sports injuries, or any other form of...

Kidney ultrasound

Kidney or renal ultrasound is a non-invasive imaging technique that is widely used due to its safety, accessibility, and real-time capabilities. Indications Kidney ultrasound is commonly used in the evaluation and diagnosis of various renal disorders: abdominal pain or flank pain haema...

Amplatz Super Stiff

The Amplatz Super Stiff, or Amplatz guidewire, is a widely utilised stiff rail wire. It possesses properties that enable excellent trackability, stable exchange, and effective deployment of heavy devices. It was designed to succeed the Lundquist guidewire, the stiffest wire available in 19861....

Flush catheters

Flush catheters are a type of vascular catheter designed to allow high-flow injection rates (15 to 20 ml/s)1 into large vessels, for optimal aortograms and/or phlebograms. The most common flush catheters are: pigtail catheter straight flush catheter Tennis Racquet catheter Properties have ...

Superior vena cava stenting

Superior vena cava stenting is an interventional procedure used for the management of superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction. Indication This procedure is indicated in severe symptomatic SCV obstruction with failure of the medical treatment (e.g. corticosteroids, anticoagulation therapy, diureti...

Simmons catheter

The Simmons catheter, also known as Sidewinder 1, Sim, or SS catheter, is a common reverse-curve angiographic selective access catheter designed for catheterisation and subselection of brachiocephalic or visceral arteries, in order to secure access, advance, and exchange devices, or deliver cont...

Cobra catheter

The Cobra tip shape configuration is used in selective angiographic catheters and designed for catheterisation and subselection of vessels, in order to secure access, advance, exchange devices, or deliver contrast in the target vessel 1. The Cobra tip-shape configuration is also used in urology...

Selective access catheters

Selective access catheters are designed for catheterisation and subselection of vessel ostia, biliary, urogenital, or digestive tracts. They come in different tip shapes that have wall-seeking behaviour. They also ensure the advancement down the target destination and provide positional stabilit...

Rail guidewires

Rail guidewires, also known as working wires, are interventional procedures wires used during the last steps of interventions and have ideal properties for equipment exchange (e.g. angioplasty balloons, stents). They are inserted in the catheter after reaching the target destination and after re...

CT myelography

CT myelography is a myelography technique used mainly to assess for potential spinal canal stenosis when MRI is contraindicated or when dynamic imaging is required. History CT myelography was first performed in 1976 2. Indications spinal canal stenosis when MRI is contraindicated dors...

Thermoprotection techniques

Thermoprotection techniques are used to prevent thermal injury for non-target tissue, during thermal ablations (microwave, radiofrequency, or cryoablation), and some of them can be used to create free access for percutaneous procedures that would otherwise be blocked by non-target organs. Disse...

Access guidewires

Access guidewires are interventional procedures wires used during the first steps of interventions, to secure stable access and sheaths/catheter insertion. They are quickly exchanged for a navigation wire thereafter. The most common access wires are1: Cope Mandril wire Nitrex wire Properties...

Crawford classification

The Crawford classification is a system used to classify thoracoabdominal aneurysms and has important therapeutic implications. Precise classification of anatomical features allows accurate stratification of risk and appropriate operative planning 1,2. Classification The system divides thorac...

Cauldwell classification

Cauldwell classification is a commonly used classification in assessing bronchial artery branching pattern. Classification The bronchial artery branching pattern is classified into four types based on the number of intercostobronchial trunks (ICBT) - that gives rise to right bronchial artery a...

Chemical ablation

Chemical ablation is a technique in which chemical ablative substances are used to cause cell death in neoplastic tissue. It is used as a standalone procedure or in combination with other techniques like TACE and radiofrequency ablation. Agents absolute ethanol (most commonly used) acetic aci...

Gastrointestinal stents

Gastrointestinal (GI) stents are increasingly used to treat obstruction of the GI tract, most commonly due to malignancy. Types of stent oesophageal stent gastric stent duodenal stent enteric stent colorectal stent History and etymology Somewhat surprisingly the word 'stent' is actually ...

Trigeminal radiofrequency ablation

Trigeminal radiofrequency ablation, also known as trigeminal radiofrequency rhizotomy, is a percutaneous interventional procedure used to treat trigeminal neuralgia. It is the most popular technique for trigeminal ablation. Indications trigeminal neuralgia resistant to traditional medical trea...

Persistent primitive olfactory artery

A persistent primitive olfactory artery (PPOA) is a rare variant of the proximal anterior cerebral artery 1,2. It is proposed to be more prone to aneurysms due to its sharp hairpin-like turn. Embryologically, the persistent primitive olfactory artery is the rostral division of the primitive inte...

Contraceptive implant migration

Contraceptive implant migration is a rare complication of etonogestrel implant insertion. Clinical presentation unable to palpate device in the upper arm chest pain dyspnoea non-productive cough menorrhagia irregular vaginal bleeding Pathology Contraceptive implants are ...

Nephrostogram

Nephrostogram, also known as antegrade pyelogram, is a special x-ray procedure that fluoroscopically evaluates the upper collecting system by introducing water-soluble contrast through the nephrostomy catheter. Indications Nephrostogram can be useful to determine tube position or assess resid...

Superior hypogastric nerve block

Superior hypogastric nerve block is a valuable tool for pain relief in the setting of uterine fibroid embolisation. This procedure results in significant ischaemic pain, peaking at 6-8 hours and lasting approximately 24 hours, then followed by a lesser degree of post-embolisation pain which can ...

Cryoablation

Cryoablation refers to the use of thermal energy in the form of very low temperatures to achieve targeted destruction of tumour cells. It is an image-guided technique, currently widely employed in the management of renal 1, hepatic 2 and lung tumours 3. Historically, a rudimental form of cryosu...

Pericapsular nerve group block (ultrasound-guided)

Pericapsular nerve group (PENG) blocks are one approach for delivering anaesthesia to the hip joint. It is most commonly used in patients with fractures of the hip and bony pelvis 1. Indications acetabular fractures 5 pubic rami fractures proximal femoral fractures intertrochanteric fractu...

Quadratus femoris injection (technique)

Quadratus femoris injections under image guidance ensure precise delivery of an injectate and ensure the sciatic nerve is avoided during the procedure. CT and ultrasound can be used, with ultrasound becoming more challenging in those with larger body habitus. Indications therapeutic for ischi...

Z-track technique for paracentesis

The Z-track technique is used for paracentesis. It produces a non-linear track between the dermis and the peritoneum, and this serves to decrease the chance of ascitic fluid leakage through the track. Procedure Instead of directly sticking the access needle from the skin surface into the perit...

Ghost infarct core

Ghost infarct core refers to the phenomenon that CT perfusion may overestimate infarct core on admission, especially in the early time window of a stroke, by predicting lesion in areas that will not show infarct on follow-up imaging 1. This mismatch is defined as the initial infarct core - final...

Angioleiomyoma

Angioleiomyomas, also known as angiomyomas or vascular leiomyomas, are benign pericytic or perivascular soft tissue tumours. Epidemiology Angioleimyomas are rare and have been observed in a wide age range with a peak in the 4th to 6th decades of life. Generally, women are more commonly affec...

Lumbar puncture

Lumbar puncture is a commonly-performed hospital procedure in which a needle is inserted through the back to the subarachnoid space in the spinal canal often to collect some cerebrospinal fluid or inject a therapeutic agent. The procedure can be performed under imaging guidance, e.g. fluoroscopy...

Trocar technique

The trocar technique is a common technique for surgical procedures and interventional placement of tubes and drainage where instruments, tubes or drains are advanced to the target location through a fixed cannula or hollow tube namely the trocar, which acts as a portal in the process. History ...

Percutaenous renal tumour ablation

Percutaneous ablation in the kidney is now performed as a standard therapeutic nephron-sparing option in patients who are poor candidates for resection. It is performed via radiofrequency ablation or cryoablation. Follow-up time frame Can vary according to centre but usually includes contrast-...

Subtalar joint injection (technique)

Subtalar joint injections are most often performed for osteoarthritis and the posterior subtalar joint is targeted. Ultrasound, fluoroscopy and CT guidance can be used. Indications osteoarthritis diagnostic Contraindications Absolute anaphylaxis to contrast/injectates active local/system...

No-touch ablation technique

No-touch ablation techniques, using either microwave or radiofrequency to generate heating, refer to approaches whereby the probes are placed at multiple oblique sites tangential and adjacent to the targeted tumour (cf. probe placement centrally within the tumour). Indications For general ind...

Pudendal nerve block (technique)

Pudendal nerve blocks are performed on those with suspected or proven pudendal neuralgia. Using CT will ensure accurate needle placement, which aims for a perineural pudendal nerve injection in the pudendal canal, also known as Alcock's canal. Indications pudendal neuralgia diagnostic Contr...

Gluteus minimus/medius calcific tendinopathy barbotage (technique)

Gluteus minimus/medius calcific tendinopathy barbotage is a procedure performed under ultrasound guidance with the aim of reducing the bulk of tendon calcification, in a similar fashion to that performed for rotator cuff calcific tendinopathy. Indications gluteus minimus/medius tendon calcifi...

Bariatric embolisation

Bariatric embolisation is an interventional procedure performed with a view to inducing weight-loss in the treatment of obesity. Evidence from clinical trials suggests that the procedure is well tolerated and has a good safety profile. Early studies demonstrate a mild-moderate beneficial effect....

Arthrocentesis

Arthrocentesis or joint aspiration is an interventional procedure done for the collection of synovial fluid. History The existence of liquid inside joints was first mentioned in the Corpus Hippocraticum, later in the 16th century, Paracelsus coined the name “synovia” for synovial fluid. Indic...

Knee joint injection (technique)

Knee joint injections under image guidance ensure precise delivery of an injectate into the knee joint. Either fluoroscopy, ultrasound or CT can be used to guide and administer injectates, which may be diagnostic (e.g. anaesthetic), "therapeutic" (e.g. anaesthetic/steroids, PRP), or for CT or MR...

EUS-guided biliary drainage

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided biliary drainage is an alternative to conventional transpapillary and percutaneous biliary drainage in where an extra-anatomic route is created between the biliary tree and the gastrointestinal tract. Indications failed endoscopic transpapillary biliary drai...

Endosaccular flow disruption devices

Endosaccular flow disruption devices, also simply known as flow disruptors, are used for the treatment of either ruptured or unruptured saccular, wide-neck, usually bifurcation as well as side-wall intracranial aneurysms. Their primary function is to stop blood from flowing into the aneurysm, al...

Billowing phenomenon

Billowing phenomenon refers to the presence of contrast medium on contrast-enhanced CT outside of graft metal struts, due to the specific construction characteristic typical of the AFX® stent-graft (Endologix, Inc., USA), designed to treat abdominal aortic aneurysms. It has a unique internal sca...

Remasking

Remasking is a post-processing technique used to improve misregistration artifact in digital subtraction angiography (DSA), where a frame taken after patient motion is selected as the new mask image for subtraction. In digital subtraction angiography, misregistration (improper image registratio...

Inferior vena cava filter retrieval

Inferior vena cava filter retrieval is an endovascular procedure whereby a previously placed inferior vena cava (IVC) filter is removed. Procedure The procedure is performed under local anaesthesia with fluoroscopic guidance. Venous access is usually gained via the internal jugular vein with d...

Superior rectal artery embolisation

Superior rectal artery embolisation is a minimally invasive endovascular technique that has a role in the management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding and has recently re-emerged as a potential option for the treatment of symptomatic haemorrhoidal disease, this article will focus on the l...

Endovascular arteriovenous fistula creation

Endovascular arteriovenous fistula creation is a recently developed minimally invasive alternative for the creation of arteriovenous fistulae for haemodialysis access. Technique Catheter-based technology and image guidance in the form of ultrasound and fluoroscopy is utilised create a side-to-...

Chiba needle

The Chiba needle is one of the most commonly used biopsy/percutaneous access needles. It is a two-part hollow needle with a beveled tip angled at 30 degrees. The inner stylet (which is also beveled) is removable. The beveling of the Chiba needle results in superior steering compared to conventio...

Sternoclavicular joint injection (technique)

Sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) injections under image guidance ensure precise delivery of an injectate into the joint and importantly that needle depth is under direct visualisation. Indications pain arthropathy, e.g. osteoarthritis diagnostic injection Contraindications Absolute anaphyla...

Hip joint injection (technique)

Hip joint injections can be performed with a variety of image guidance, including fluoroscopy and ultrasound, which are used to administer MRI arthrogram injectate, or a steroid containing anaesthetic arthrogram injectate. Indications MRI: labral injury anaesthetic pain/arthropa...

Greater trochanteric bursa injection (technique)

Greater femoral trochanteric bursa injections under ultrasound guidance ensure the injectate is accurately given into the bursa. The greater trochanteric bursa is the largest of the bursae surrounding the proximal femur, with the others including the subgluteus minimus and subgluteus medius burs...

Long head of biceps brachii tendon sheath injection (technique)

Long head of biceps brachii (LHB) tendon sheath injections under ultrasound guidance ensure accurate delivery of injectate, which is important as these injections are often performed for diagnostic purposes. Indications pain diagnostic injection alternative access to the glenohumer...

Acromioclavicular joint injection (technique)

Acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) injections under image guidance ensure precise delivery of an injectate into the joint. Ultrasound allows for real-time visualisation of the needle and administration of the injectate. Fluoroscopy is an alternative method of image guidance. Indications pain: a...

Twig-like middle cerebral artery

Twig-like middle cerebral artery or rete mirabile anomaly describes a discontinuity of a single trunk of the middle cerebral artery with several small vessels reconstituting the artery and giving it a twig-like appearance. Distally, normal vascular anatomy of the MCA branches need to be present ...

Percutaneous liver tumour ablation

Percutaneous liver tumour ablation techniques are well-established and effective therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of primary and secondary liver tumours. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and colorectal oligometastatic disease are the most common indications. There are specific indication...

Percutaneous lung tumour ablation

Percutaneous lung tumour ablation techniques are an alternative to surgery or stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) for the treatment of certain malignancies. They have specific indications and contraindications, but are mostly limited to small oligonodular and favourably located lesions. They...

Interventional radiology in practice

Interventional radiology procedures within medical imaging span multiple subspecialties and modalities. This is a collection of articles exploring indications, techniques and practice applications of interventional procedures within radiology. In paediatrics, the most common interventional proc...

Ulnar nerve block (ultrasound-guided)

Ulnar nerve blocks are an approach for delivering anaesthesia to the ulnar nerve territory either as a standalone blockade or combined with brachial plexus, radial or median nerve block. Indications burns involving tissue in the ulnar nerve territory rescue analgesia for failed brachial plexu...

Radial nerve block (ultrasound-guided)

Radial nerve blocks are a procedure for delivering anaesthesia to the radial nerve territory either as a standalone blockade or in conjunction with a brachial plexus, ulnar or median nerve block. Indications association with median nerve block radial tunnel syndrome forearm and hand surgical...

Median nerve block (ultrasound-guided)

Median nerve block is a technique used for providing anaesthesia to the median nerve territory, it may be performed at the level of the arm, elbow, forearm or the wrist. Indications fracture reductions surgical repair of fractures incision and drainage of cysts and abscesses post-o...

Rotator cuff calcific tendinitis barbotage

Rotator cuff calcific tendonitis can be treated with various techniques including ultrasound-guided barbotage, which is also known as ultrasound-guided needling and lavage. It is often performed in conjunction with a subacromial bursal injection. Alternative treatments include extracorporeal sho...

Tachon syndrome

Tachon syndrome is a rare systemic side effect of epidural or intra-articular corticosteroid injections. Clinical presentation Minutes after injection, patients may complain of 1: acute low back pain chest tightness facial erythema profuse sweating cough agitation Treatment and prognosi...

Arthrogram (anaesthetic)

An arthrogram injection is a procedure in which a solution is administered into a joint under imaging guidance. These procedures are more accurately named direct arthrogram injections, although they are routinely known as arthrograms. Fluoroscopy, ultrasound, and CT can be used for image guidanc...

Arthrogram (CT)

A CT arthrogram is a CT performed after a joint is injected with a solution containing iodinated contrast. They are not commonly abbreviated as CTA, which will be confused with CT angiography. An arthrogram also refers to the procedure of injecting a joint. Indications shoulder: instability...

Arthrogram

An arthrogram (or arthrography) is a commonly performed procedure in musculoskeletal radiology, which can refer to both an injection into a joint, and cross-sectional imaging after a joint is injected. Indications Arthrograms are performed for a variety of indications including: labral te...

Arthrogram (MRI)

An MR arthrogram is an MRI performed after a joint is injected with a solution containing gadolinium. Sometimes abbreviated to MRA, which can be confused with MR angiography. MRI can also be performed after an injection is not directly administered into the joint, via an indirect arthrogram. An ...

Juan M Taveras

Juan M Taveras (1919-2002) was an Dominican neuroradiologist, who is remembered chiefly for his work in establishing neuroradiology as a separate subspecialty in the United States. He was the principal mover behind the founding of the American Society of Neuroradiology and its primary publicati...

Splenic biopsy

Percutaneous splenic biopsy, using either ultrasound or CT guidance, is an accurate and reliable method of acquiring splenic tissue for histopathological assessment and has been proposed as an alternative for splenectomy in selected patients. Although the procedure has been historically feared ...

MRI targeted prostate biopsy

MRI targeted prostate biopsy refers to an imaging targeted technique rather than the traditional systematic approach of a prostate biopsy after respective imaging with multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the prostate. As a consequence of the recent advances of multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) of the pros...

Symphyseal cleft injection

Symphyseal cleft injections (symphysography) are performed as both diagnostic and therapeutic measures for patients with (suspected) osteitis pubis, usually under CT or fluoroscopy. Indications suspected or confirmed osteitis pubis Contraindications factors to be considered as per any muscu...

Groshong catheter

Groshong catheters are a type of central venous catheter, which are placed under direct fluoroscopic visualisation in an angiography suite. They can be tunnelled or non-tunnelled and are similar to a Hickman catheter, with the main difference being that Groshong catheters have a three-way valve ...

Oesophageal varix

Oesophageal varices describe dilated submucosal veins of the oesophagus, and are an important portosystemic collateral pathway. They are considered distinct from gastric varices, which are less common. Epidemiology Oesophageal varices are present in ~50% of patients with portal hypertension 1,...

Preoperative pulmonary nodule localisation

Preoperative pulmonary nodule localisation is a CT-guided procedure where a marker is applied to a usually small lung lesion to assist in its surgical identification and resection. The widespread use of video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) and the advance in robotically assisted surgical inter...

Tumour ablation

Tumour ablation, or image-guided tumour ablation, is the direct application of chemical or energy-based (i.e. thermal and non-thermal) treatments to cause local tumour destruction. Techniques include: energy-based techniques thermal ablation radiofrequency ablation (RFA) microwave ablation (...

Key figures in the history of radiology

In the history of radiology certain key figures stand out for their groundbreaking contributions to the establishment and development of radiology as a science, medical specialty and major advance in patient care. This list is by necessity arbitrary, although we (the editors) hope that the major...

Expanded treatment in cerebral ischaemia (eTICI) score

The expanded treatment in cerebral infarction (eTICI) score is a modified from the modified treatment in cerebral infarction (mTICI) and thrombolysis in cerebral infarction (TICI) scales. It was published by the HERMES investigators in 20191. Using modified Rankin scale (mRs) shift at 90 days a...

Robotics in interventional radiology

Robotics in interventional radiology (IR) is an emerging area following the growth of engineering technology. Machine-assisted procedures are already performed in various disciplines including general, cardiothoracic and urologic surgery. The best-known is the Da Vinci® Surgical System. The appl...

Superficial cervical plexus nerve block (ultrasound)

The superficial cervical plexus nerve block is a field block indicated for procedures involving, and anaesthesia of, the anterolateral neck and the skin overlying the clavicle. The superficial cervical plexus (SCP) includes the greater auricular, lesser occipital, transverse cervical, and suprac...

Thoracic duct embolisation

Thoracic duct embolisation (TDE) is a safe, efficacious treatment for chylothorax 1. Chylothoraces with a low drain output (<1L/day) are traditionally managed conservatively with dietary change, whilst high output (>1L/d) are managed with surgical thoracic duct (TD) ligation 2. Thoracic duct em...

Implantable port

Implantable ports, also known as chemoports, totally implantable central venous access ports or Port-A-Caths, are a type of central venous catheter for patients requiring long-term venous access. They offer the ability to have long-term central venous access with some of the advantages over peri...

Radiologically inserted gastrostomy (RIG)

A radiologically inserted gastrostomy (RIG) is a procedure where a tube is inserted percutaneously into the stomach, principally to provide nutritional support for patients with swallowing disorders 1. Indications inadequate oral intake due to dysphagia (neurologic disorder, oesophageal obstru...

Denver shunt

A Denver shunt, or peritoneovenous shunt, is a device used to shunt ascites to the superior vena cava in patients with refractory ascites. The proximal end is located in the peritoneal cavity and the distal end in the superior vena cava, with a subcutaneous course in the anterior chest wall. It...

Peritoneal dialysis catheter

A peritoneal dialysis catheter is a flexible tube designed for peritoneal dialysis, the most well-known and widely-used being the Tenckhoff catheter. From an MRI perspective, the Tenckhoff catheter has an extraperitoneal tungsten tip which is MRI-compatible, however, it will cause some suscept...

Venous intravasation

Venous intravasation is the unintended introduction of radiographic contrast material into the local venous system. It is a well-recognised phenomenon during retrograde urethrograms 1,2 and hysterosalpingograms (HSG), although can occur with other invasive procedures in the vicinity of venous pl...

Balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration

Balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration (BRTO) is a technique used by interventional radiologists in the treatment of gastric varices, particularly those with prominent infra-diaphragmatic portosystemic venous shunts (e.g. gastro-renal and gastro-caval shunts). The technique is mor...

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