Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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Laminoplasty

Laminoplasty, also known as osteoplastic reconstruction of the lamina, is an surgical procedure that involves the replacement of the lamina of the vertebral body following a laminectomy procedure in an attempt to provide better post-operative stabilization. Indications spinal stenosis c...

Axillary web syndrome

Axillary web syndrome (AWS) is a commonly occurring condition after breast cancer surgery involving lymphadenectomy 1. It is characterized by the presence of one or multiple thin cords in the subcutaneous tissues of the axilla, extending down the arm and/or chest wall 1,2. This can lead to disco...

Tropical pulmonary eosinophilia

Tropical pulmonary eosinophilia (TPE) is a pulmonary condition of an overreactive immune response to microfilaria trapped in the lungs. TPE is a distinct entity with specific symptoms and diagnostic criteria that differentiate it from other types of eosinophilia in tropical regions. This artic...

Internal auditory canal atresia

Internal auditory canal atresia, or internal auditory canal stenosis, is characterized by partial or complete bony atresia of the internal auditory canal, often in association with hypoplasia/aplasia of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Epidemiology This is a very rare entity with few cases reporte...

Von Brunn nests of the bladder

Von Brunn nests are non-neoplastic reactive urothelial lesions that occur in the bladder. They represent clusters of urothelial cells found in the superficial lamina propria resulting from the invagination of the superficial urothelium. Histologically, those nests generally show uniform size a...

Core decompression of osteonecrosis of humeral head

Core decompression is the first-line surgical option for symptomatic and low-grade osteonecrosis of the humeral head. Core decompression is a treatment for improving symptoms and preventing progression and humeral head collapse (crescent sign). Without treatment, the osteonecrosis of the humeral...

Perianal genital warts

Perianal genital warts, also known as condyloma acuminata (singular: condyloma acuminatum), are a complication of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. They are diagnosed clinically and are usually painless and benign, but can rarely undergo malignant transformation into squamous cell carcinoma....

Microcephaly with a simplified gyral pattern

Microcephaly with a simplified gyral pattern (MSG) is a congenital malformation characterized by microcephaly accompanied by a simplified gyral pattern. The term “simplified gyral pattern” often describes a reduced number of gyri and shallow sulci with a normal cortical thickness and architectur...

Arias-Stella reaction

An Arias-Stella reaction is a common gynecological histological finding in curettage specimens of gestational endometrium describing a non-neoplastic lesion that is easily confused with uterine malignancy 1,2. Pathology An Arias-Stella reaction is due to hormonal hyperstimulation causing atypi...

Parotid liposubstitution

Parotid liposubstitution is a fatty degeneration of the parotid gland, sometimes increasing in volume. Associations Parotid liposubstitution is physiological with age but which may be associated with local or systemic conditions that include: hypertriglyceridemia may be associated with fat in...

Extradural spinal cavernous malformation

Extradural spinal cavernous malformations, also known as extradural spinal cavernomas, are rare vascular malformations that occur in the spine. This article specifically relates to extradural spinal cavernomas. For a general discussion of spinal cord cavernomas please refer to the article spin...

Metastatic glioblastoma

Metastatic glioblastoma is a rare progression of glioblastoma, with an incidence of 0.4-0.5% of all glioblastoma cases. The locations can be extraneural, such as leptomeninges and dural venous sinuses, or both extraneural and extracranial, such as solid organs and lymph nodes. Epidemiology In ...

Scapular notching

Scapular notching is a radiologic finding post reverse total shoulder arthroplasty that correlates to erosion of the scapular neck. The erosion occurs due to the repetitive contact between the polyethylene of the humeral component and the inferior scapular neck during adduction and progressive ...

Michaelis-Gutmann bodies

Michaeliis-Gutmann bodies are a histological feature characteristic of malakoplakia, typically seen in mid-stage disease 1,2. They are 1–10 μm laminated or targetoid basophilic focal inclusions of iron and calcium salts seen on light microscopy. They are also periodic acid–Schiff, and diastase-...

Succinate dehydrogenase (SDHx) gene mutation

Succinate dehydrogenase gene (SDHx) germline mutations increase the risk of sympathetic paragangliomas, head and neck paragangliomas, pheochromocytomas, renal cell carcinoma (RCC), and gastric gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) 1,2,6,7. Pathology There are four SDH genes - SDHA, SDHB, SDHC...

Acanthosis nigricans

Acanthosis nigricans is a cutaneous disorder characterized by symmetric hyperpigmented velvety plaques on the neck, axillae, antecubital and popliteal fossae, inframammary, and groin areas. It is associated with acquired lipodystrophy. Pathology The benign form of acanthosis nigricans is assoc...

Familial hypercholesterolemia

Familial hypercholesterolemia is a common autosomal dominant 1 condition resulting in hyperlipidemia. Epidemiology 1 in 200 individuals are estimated to be carriers of at least one gene associated with familial hypercholesterolemia 1. Pathology Features of hyperlipidemia such as early/exces...

Myocardial necrosis

Myocardial necrosis refers to the cell death of cardiomyocytes and represents one pathologic correlate in the setting of myocardial injury and/or myocardial infarction. Clinical presentation Many clinical scenarios leading to myocardial necrosis will lead to some form of cardiac symptoms such ...

Traditional serrated adenoma

Traditional serrated adenomas are a type of premalignant serrated colonic polyp. Epidemiology They are thought to account for <1% of all colonic polyps and 1-7% of all serrated lesions. They tend to occur in older patients (usually over 50 years) with no significant gender predilection. Patho...

Cystitis

Cystitis refers to inflammation of the urinary bladder. It may occur in isolation or be associated with inflammation of other parts of the urinary tract such as ureteritis or pyelonephritis. Epidemiology Cystitis is more common in females due to the short length of the urethra and its close pr...

Peribronchiolar metaplasia

Peribronchiolar metaplasia is a partially recognized pathological entity characterized by fibrosis of the alveolar septa adjacent to terminal bronchioles and alveolar ducts, with bronchiolar-type epithelial metaplasia of the peribronchiolar alveolar walls. It is currently only accepted by some a...

Feces

Feces, also known as stool, is the solid component of human waste. Almost half of its dry mass is bacterial biomass, with the remainder comprised of undigested dietary matter, exfoliated cells of the gut, intestinal secretions, small metabolites and mucus. Composition Fecal matter is semisoli...

RNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid) is one of the two major nucleic acids in biological cells, the other being DNA; unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded. The composition of the nucleotides and nucleosides is also partly different due to variations in the monosaccharide and base constituents: D-ribose sugar rep...

Klebsiella

Klebsiella is a genus of Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria, which is relatively commonly encountered in the healthcare environment. It has numerous species, including K. pneumoniae, K. aerogenes, and K. rhinoscleromatis 1. Klebsiella may cause a range of infections, most commo...

Clade

A clade is a taxonomic term which is used to describe organisms which form a distinct group with shared characteristics that distinguish them from other groups of organisms. For example, organisms making up genetic variants within a particular species. See also monkeypox

Gain of function

Gain of function represents the set of laboratory techniques thanks to which it is possible to genetically modify a pathogen (for example a virus) in order to provide it with new capabilities.The field of application of the gain-of-function, in fact, is virology, in order to improve the understa...

Birbeck granules

Birbeck granules refer to unusual rod-shaped structures specific to Langerhans cells. Their origin and function remain undetermined. Langerin is a crucial component within Birbeck granules. History and etymology Birbeck granules were first described by Michael S Birbeck in 1961 3. Related pat...

CSF alpha-fetoprotein

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) in the cerebrospinal spinal fluid (CSF) has been reported as a tumor marker for some intracranial tumors with yolk sac elements, and teratoma 1. Interpretation Elevation intracranial yolk sac tumor intracranial embryonal carcinoma congenital CNS tumors with yolk sac ...

DNA-methylation

DNA-methylation is an epigenetic modification of DNA by the addition of methyl groups (-CH3) which in turn results in changes to numerous processes including how genes are expressed. The specific pattern of methylation is specific to different tissues, can change over time depending on physiol...

Endometrial osseous metaplasia

Endometrial osseous metaplasia is a very rare pathological condition whereby there may be mature bone formation within the endometrium. This process may be a cause of menorrhagia and/or infertility. See also endocervical osseous metaplasia and cervical osseous metaplasia (may represent the sam...

Eburnation

Eburnation describes the appearance of bone following a degenerative process in which subchondral or otherwise exposed bone acquires a non-anatomical sclerotic, microimpacted, and "polished" articular surface. This phenomenon typically arises in one of two situations: hypertrophic non-union of...

Quadruple screening test

The quadruple screening test, also known as the quad screen, AFP Plus quad test or multiple marker screening test, is a maternal antenatal screening blood test that can be used in conjunction with other investigations e.g. ultrasound soft markers, to estimate the risk of aneuploidy 1. This is ...

Panniculitis

Panniculitis (plural: panniculitides 1) is a non-specific histopathological term referring to inflammation of adipose tissue. It most commonly affects subcutaneous fat, although internal forms, e.g., mesenteric panniculitis, are well-known 1,2. Clinical presentation Most panniculitides present...

Glycosaminoglycans

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), formerly known as mucopolysaccharides, are biomolecules produced by almost all mammalian cells, as well as in many vertebrates and invertebrates, but have not been described in plants 1. They are constituent elements of proteoglycans and are found within the cells in t...

Nestin

Nestin is an intermediate filament protein found primarily in central nervous system stem cells. It is the target of antibodies for immunohistochemistry for the assessment of neuropathological histology specimens.

Immunosuppression

Immunosuppression is the impairment of the body's immune system which can alter the ability of the body's defense mechanisms to prevent diseases, particularly certain infections, including opportunistic infections, and cancers. Terminology Patients with immunosuppression are said to be immuno...

Skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscles, skeletal striated muscles or plainly muscles are integral to the locomotor system responsible for movements. The human body's musculoskeletal system has more than 600 muscles 1 making up around 40% of the body weight. They are heterogeneous and have different architectures and ...

Alcian blue stain

Alcian blue stain is a histological stain utilized for the identification of extracellular matrix proteoglycans, like glycosaminoglycans and hyaluronic acid 1, commonly in connective tissue and epithelial malignant neoplasms 2, and also Barrett esophagus, where it can highlight mucosal intestina...

Giemsa stain

Giemsa stain is a commonly used histological stain that colors the cytoplasm blue to pink (depending on its acidity) and the nucleus blue to black 1. It serves as the diagnostic gold standard of histopathological staining of blood samples from patients with plasmodium-borne malaria, and as the b...

Chemical article structure

Articles about chemicals, whether chemical elements or their innumerable compounds, have a unique structure and subheadings. All articles should be placed in the Pathology section. ======================================================================= The introduction should take the followin...

Platelets

Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are an essential constituent of the cellular component of blood. They play a key role in normal hemostasis. Normal platelet levels in adult patients are 150-400 x 109/L. Physiology Platelets are tiny (2-4 μm) cells that lack nuclei 1-3. They are mass prod...

Thrombocytosis

Thrombocytosis (plural: thrombocytoses) is a general term and is defined as a rise in platelet count to over two standard deviations above the normal range. Its exact quantitative definition is variable, but generally equates to a platelet count greater than 400-450x109 cells/L. Although there...

Neoplasm

Neoplasms, also known as tumors, are pathological masses, caused by cells abnormally proliferating and/or not appropriately dying. Neoplasms may be either benign or malignant. Malignant neoplasms are synonymous with cancers. Benign neoplasms clear origin (unless very large) slow growth usua...

Flat epithelial atypia

Flat epithelial atypia is an entity that comprises any columnar cell lesion with low-grade cytologic atypia. Terminology Flat epithelial atypia was introduced in the 3rd edition of WHO Classification of Breast Tumors in 2003, to substitute terms such as clinging carcinoma monomorphous type, at...

Columnar cell hyperplasia of the breast

Columnar cell hyperplasia is part of the spectrum of columnar cell lesions of the breast characterized by enlarged terminal ductal lobular units lined by stratified (more than two layers) columnar epithelium, cellular crowding or overlapping without atypia. It can also form tufts or mounds with...

Columnar cell change without atypia (breast)

Columnar cell change without atypia breast lesions are characterized by enlarged terminal ductal lobular units lined by columnar epithelial cells which substitute the normal cuboid epithelial layer. They are also associated with prominent apical cytoplasmic snouts and intraluminal secretions. ...

Myocardial fiber disarray

Myocardial disarray, myocardial fiber disarray or cardiac myocyte disarray refers to bizarre disorganization and texture of cardiac myocyte bundles, individual cardiomyocytes and contractile elements within the sarcomeres. It is an important histological feature of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy wh...

Prostatic acid phosphatase

Prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) also known as prostatic specific acid phosphatase (PSAP) is an enzyme generated by prostatic glandular tissue. Usage It can be used in immunohistochemistry to identify prostatic tissue including prostatic epithelium and prostatic ducts and is usually expressed ...

Parathyroid proliferative disease

Parathyroid proliferative disease is the collective term for a spectrum of parathyroid disorders 1: parathyroid adenoma parathyroid carcinoma parathyroid atypical adenoma: controversial entity parathyroid hyperplasia primary chief cell hyperplasia primary water-clear cell hyperplasia (rare...

CD34

CD34 or hematopoietic progenitor cell antigen CD34 is an intercellular adhesion protein and cell surface glycoprotein and a frequently used marker of hematopoietic progenitor cells and endothelial cells. It is also expressed by many other non-hematopoietic cell types including multipotent mesenc...

Ascitic fluid cholesterol level

Ascitic fluid cholesterol level estimation is a simple and precise test for differentiating malignant ascites from non-malignant (cirrhotic) ascites 5-9. Pathology Ascites is the abnormal collection of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. Malignant ascites comprises ~10% and is usually seconda...

Fomites

Fomites (singular: fomes) are used in medicine to refer to inanimate porous or non-porous objects, or surfaces colonized with microbes (viruses, bacteria, fungi) and serve as vehicles for transmitting many pathogenic microorganisms 1-3. Some examples of fomites are clothing, mobile phones, handr...

Hypoplasia

Hypoplasia (plural: hypoplasias) is a pathological term referring to the state of a tissue or organ which at the end of its developmental process has not fully formed (cf. aplasia in which the organ/tissue does not form at all). Thus, the term hypoplasia does not tend to be used for a later (pos...

Calponin

Calponin is an actin-binding protein regulating actin/myosin interaction in smooth muscle and non-muscle cells 1,2. It inhibits actin-activated myosin ATPase and stabilizes the actin cytoskeleton. It also serves as a target in immunohistochemistry where it can be used for the identification of m...

Desmin

Desmin is a muscle-specific protein. It is the main intermediate filament protein and a key component in the cytoskeletal network of muscle cells e.g. in the myocardium, where it is ampler than in skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. It interacts with other proteins to support the myofibrils at the...

DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid that encodes the genetic information (genome) necessary for RNA (ribonucleic acid) transcription (transcriptome) and protein synthesis (proteome) 1. It is contained in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells in the form of chromatin or chromosomes 7,8. Mole...

Tungsten

Tungsten (chemical symbol, W) is a hard refractory metallic element with remarkable resilience which forms the basis for its industrial uses. It is the metal of choice in the filaments and targets of x-ray tubes. There is no evidence that tungsten is required by the human body, although some mic...

Bethesda classification system for thyroid fine needle aspirates

Bethesda classification system for thyroid fine needle aspirates comprises six categories of pathological reporting of thyroid FNA, with each category linked to a malignancy risk. Classification category I: non-diagnostic category II: benign category III: atypia of undetermined sig...

Neuron specific enolase

Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is a cell specific isoenzyme of the glycolytic enzyme enolase. It is sometimes considered as a tumor marker. Elevated neuron specific enolase levels have shown to occur in association with: tumors small cell lung cancer: up to 70% of patients with small cell lu...

PSA velocity

The PSA velocity (PSAV) is a statistically-derived measure of how the prostate specific antigen (PSA) changes over time, and has been used as a marker of how prostate malignancy progresses or regresses. Any cancer grows over time and relative changes of tumor markers, such as PSA, would seem t...

Smooth muscle actin

Smooth muscle actin (SMA) is a target in immunohistochemistry which is positive in cell lines which expresses actin. It is generally used to identify cells of myoepithelial origin 1. Related pathology leiomyoma perivascular epithelioid cell tumors (PEComas)

Placode

Placode (or neural placode) refers in terms of radiology to a segment of non-neurulated neural tissue, which has had development frozen in the neural plate stage. A placode can be found in all open spinal dysraphisms and in some closed spinal dysraphisms. In the former, the placode is exposed to...

Antinuclear antibody

Antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) are a heterogenous class of autoantibodies raised against antigens present in the cell nucleus, including nucleic acids themselves and the enzymes involved in their processing. Under indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) microscopy, four major ANA staining patterns are ...

Aseptic lymphocyte-dominant vasculitis-associated lesion (ALVAL)

Aseptic lymphocyte-dominant vasculitis-associated lesion (ALVAL) is a histological entity denoting a chronic inflammatory response to metal particles (cobalt and chromium ions) from a metal-on-metal prosthesis. The finding falls on the spectrum of adverse reactions to metal debris. Pathology I...

Streptococcus anginosus group

The Streptococcus anginosus group (also part of the Streptococcus milleri group) comprise a subgroup of viridans streptococci which are gram-positive, catalase-negative bacteria. There are three distinct main streptococcal species and several subspecies: S. anginosus: has two subspecies S. an...

Intracranial aneurysm (overview)

Intracranial aneurysms, also called cerebral aneurysms, are aneurysms of the intracranial arteries. The most common morphologic type is the saccular aneurysm. Pathology There is not a universal classification for the types of intracranial aneurysms, resulting in a heterogeneous mix of terms ba...

Staghorn pattern of vascularity

The staghorn pattern of vascularity is a pathological term describing a pattern of vascularity seen on low-power light microscopy. It is defined by multiple thin-walled, sharply-branched and jagged vessels having an "antler-like" or "staghorn-like" appearance 1. It is classically described with...

Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine

The bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine is the only vaccine available for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and despite its global use for 90 years, with proven efficacy and a good safety record, has well-known limitations. It provides only limited protection against pulmonary tuberculosis. The vac...

Fecal immunochemical test

A fecal immunochemical test (FIT) is a test for human hemoglobin in stool as a screening tool for colorectal carcinoma. It is considered a better test than the traditional guaiac fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) which cannot distinguish human blood from food-derived sources. Technical backgroun...

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) are a heterogenous class of IgG autoantibodies raised against the cellular contents of neutrophils, monocytes and endothelial cells 1. Under indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) microscopy, three ANCA staining patterns are observed, based on the varying...

Granuloma

Granulomas are organized conglomerates of histiocytes, a specialized white blood cell 1. They form by the process of granulomatous inflammation, which is a specific type of chronic inflammation that occurs following cellular injury as a response to the mediators that are released. A broad range ...

Lepidic growth

Lepidic growth is a pathological term referring to a pattern of cell proliferation along the lining of the alveolar structures of the lung as is seen in a subset of lung tumors 1. History and etymology ‘lepidic’ was coined by the English pathologist John George Adam (1862-1926) whilst at McGil...

Nucleic acids

The nucleic acids are the collective term for the two main macromolecular nucleotide polymers: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid) Nucleotides, the constituent units of nucleic acids, are made up of simpler molecules called nucleosides and inorganic phosphate (H3PO4). Each nucl...

Hematoxylin and eosin stain

The combined hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain is the most widely used stain in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin has an intense purple-blue hue and binds to nucleic acids. Eosin has a pink hue and non-specifically stains proteins. These two stains in combination are vital for distinguis...

Gram stain

The Gram stain (or Gram method) is a key microbiological method for staining bacteria. The process relies upon two stains, the first, a complex of crystal violet and iodine, and the second, safranin, a red counterstain. The staining procedure subdivides bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negat...

Hematinics

The hematinics are nutrients that are required by the body for erythropoiesis, i.e. the production of red blood cells 1,2. List of hematinics Clinically, the most important hematinics are vitamin B12, iron and folic acid because deficiency states of these three substances are much more common ...

Red blood cells

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes (or rarely haematids), are cells that carry oxygen by means of hemoglobin, and form part of the cellular component of blood as it circulates throughout the body. These extremely common cells are typically made in the bone marrow in a process cal...

Corpora amylacea

The corpora amylacea ("bodies of starch") are a histologic finding, encountered more frequently in the brain, prostate, lung, and uterus. The corpora amylacea are thought to be sulfated glycosaminoglycans 1. Some have described it as a localized amyloidosis 2. In the prostate they appear to ar...

Inflammatory markers

The inflammatory markers are a disparate set of biomarkers that are used clinically to assess a patient for: presence/absence of an active inflammatory disease process activity of a known disease Possible disease processes may include infective, malignant and autoimmune diseases, although it ...

Syndemic

A syndemic is a relatively novel concept in epidemiology, referring to the simultaneous occurrence and synergy of two or more diseases or conditions in a large population in a social context that aggravates them. A syndemic is usually confined to a certain geographical area at a certain time an...

Transitional meningioma

Transitional meningiomas are also known as mixed meningiomas because they have components of meningothelial and fibrous subtypes of meningiomas. Their epidemiology, clinical aspects, radiographic characteristics, treatment, prognosis, and differential diagnosis are in the main article (see meni...

Metachronous (pathology)

The term metachronous is used in oncology to refer to two (or more) independent primary malignancies, when the second (or third, etc.) malignancy arose more than six months after the diagnosis of the first malignancy 1,2. These may be in the same, or in different, organs. See also synchronous ...

Synchronous (pathology)

The term synchronous is used in oncology to refer to two (or more) independent primary malignancies, when the second (or third, etc.) malignancy arose within six months of the diagnosis of the first malignancy 1,2. These may be in the same, or in different, organs. See also metachronous multi...

Endemic

The epidemiological term endemic is used for any condition that persists within a particular community/locale without the need for external input of new disease, i.e. the disease in question has attained a steady-state in the affected population 1. For this to happen the basic reproductive numbe...

Epidemic

The epidemiological term, epidemic is defined for a condition that is normally rare in a population but in a short space of time has become widespread 1. It may refer to both infectious diseases (for example, Zika virus epidemic in Brazil 6) but also other conditions, e.g. the obesity epidemic. ...

Pandemic

The epidemiological term, pandemic is applied to an outbreak of disease that has spread across the globe, or in other words, an epidemic that has crossed many regions, borders and multiple continents. Some of the largest pandemics in history include the bubonic plague in the 14th century and the...

Host (infectious diseases)

A host in the context of infectious disease refers to an animal or plant that acts as a biological refuge in which another - often parasitic - organism may dwell. The host usually provides shelter or nourishment to the other organism, which may use the host to partially/completely sexually devel...

Basic reproduction number

The basic reproduction number (R0), also known as just the reproductive number, basic reproductive number, basic reproductive ratio, reproduction number, R nought or R zero, is a term in epidemiology for the average number of cases in a susceptible population that will be generated by an existin...

Incubation period

The epidemiological term, the incubation period (IP) is the time between exposure to something pathogenic (including radiation, microbes or chemicals) and when the pathology first becomes apparent by symptoms. Some authors use the terms latent period and incubation period to mean the same period...

Vector (infectious disease)

A vector, (also known as a biological vector) in the context of infectious diseases, is a carrier, in particular an animal, and most commonly an arthropod, that transmits the infective entity from one host to another 1. Often the infective agent undergoes some change as part of its normal life c...

Congestion

Congestion is a pathological term referring to reduced blood flow out from tissues, which may be localized or systemic 1. Clinical presentation Congestion commonly presents with increased swelling and edema of tissues where blood flow is reduced. With prolonged congestion, the tissues may beco...

Zoonosis

A zoonosis (plural: zoonoses), also known as a zoonotic disease, is an infectious disease in humans (the host) for which another vertebrate animal can be the vector. Some zoonoses have an additional vector besides the vertebrate e.g. R. rickettsii is carried by ticks on mammals. Viruses, bacteri...

Angiotensin converting enzyme

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is a central component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) which assists in blood pressure control by regulating the volume of fluids in the body. Normal individuals may have a small volume of the angiotensin converting enzyme circulating in their blood. M...

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