Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

Create new article

312 results found

Hamartoma

A hamartoma (plural: hamartomas or hamartomata) is a benign tumor-like malformation that consists of a collection of architecturally disorganized cells located in an area of the body where the cells are normally found. It is often due to abnormal development. In radiology, hamartomas often mimi...

Opportunistic infection

Opportunistic infections (OI) are caused by micro-organisms (sometimes called opportunists) that under normal circumstances do not cause infections, but in certain clinical contexts, most commonly immunosuppression, may become pathogenic 1.

Rheumatoid factor

Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an immunoglobulin initially described in association with rheumatoid arthritis. It is an IgM antibody against the FC portion of the IgG antibodies. Ongoing research has identified a group of related immunoglobulins, classed as rheumatoid factors (RFs) and despite extens...

Embolism

Embolism describes intravascular material that is carried from its original location downstream to a distant area. The most common type of embolism is that which is derived from a thrombus, such as in the case of pulmonary embolism or stroke. Types of embolism thromboembolism gas embolism am...

Starling forces

Starling forces describe the movement of fluids between the vasculature and interstitial spaces. Fluid movement is determined by the balance of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients 1. Starling forces Net pressure = [ (Pc - Pi) - (pc - pi) ] where: Pc = hydrostatic pressure of the capil...

Edema

Edema is the accumulation of fluid in tissues. It is caused by an imbalance between forces holding fluids in the vasculature and tissues 1. Fluids are normally held in a steady state between tissues and vasculature by homeostasis between these forces (Starling equation) 2: capillary hydrostatic...

Inflammation (chronic)

Chronic inflammation is a prolonged inflammatory response whereby inflammation, injury and repair coexist. It commonly occurs over a period of weeks to months and can follow an acute inflammatory response or begin independently in a slow, insidious manner. Etiology prolonged infection prolon...

Inflammation (acute)

Inflammation is the response of tissues to infection and damage. In the acute phase, it functions to bring cells and molecules to the site of infection or damage to elicit a protective response1. The acute inflammatory response is characterized by three phases: Dilation of blood vessels, whic...

Pathology curriculum

The pathology curriculum is one of our curriculum modules and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core pathology knowledge for radiologists and other imaging professionals: general pathology cellular pathology pathologic classification systemic pathology pathology of the...

Human coronavirus

The human coronaviruses (hCoVs), members of the family Coronaviridae, are enveloped RNA viruses that affect humans, mammals and birds, causing both acute and chronic illnesses. Four of the seven known human coronaviruses usually cause a mild coryzal illness only, these are HKU1, NL63, OC43, and...

Systemic pathology

The systemic pathology article aims to outline knowledge of systemic pathological conditions important for medical imaging specialists. Systemic pathology pathology of the vascular system cardiac pathology pathology of the hematological and lymphatic systems pathology of the lung and pleura...

Apoptosis

Apoptosis (plural: apoptoses), also known as programmed cell death (PCD) is a term to describe the process of regulated cell death. This is in contrast to necrosis, which is unregulated cell death often secondary to external factors 1. Apoptosis occurs in cells which are destined to die by acti...

Hypertrophy

Hypertrophy is a term describing an increase in the size of cells. It occurs due to an increase in synthesis of intracellular proteins and other cellular components, often in response to an invoking stimulus/stress, which will result in an increase in the size of an organ. This is in contrast t...

Atrophy

Atrophy is a reduction in the size of an organ/tissue. Microscopically this is a reduction in cell size/volume caused by a reduction in protein synthesis and/or increased protein degradation 1. Atrophy may be physiologic or pathological. Physiological atrophy is commonly seen in the normal dev...

Necrosis

Necrosis (plural: necroses) is defined as unregulated cell death. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a form of regulated, or programmed, cell death 1. Necrosis is the most common type of cell death observed in injury/disease. It occurs when cellular damage is so severe that lysosomal e...

Hyperplasia

Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells of an organ/tissue, often secondary to a stimulus or stress. This process can be contrasted with hypertrophy, an increase in the size of cells, however these processes frequently co-occur 1. Hyperplasia occurs due to stimulation by growth factor...

Lymph

Lymph (also known as lymphatic fluid) is the name given to the interstitial fluid once it has passed into the lymphatic vessels. Formation As blood passes through capillary beds a significant proportion of the plasma is filtered into the extracellular space. Most of this filtered tissue fluid ...

Eosinophilia

Eosinophilia is defined as an abnormally high level of eosinophils in the blood, this is usually defined as >500 cells/μL (normal eosinophil level: <450 cells/μL). Hypereosinophilia is defined as >1500 cells/μL and is usually due to hematological malignancy 1,2. This article includes recommenda...

WHO classification of eye tumors

The World Health Organizatiοn (WHO) classification of eye tumors is a widely used pathologic classification system of neoplasms of the orbit. The current revision, part of the 4th edition of the WHO series, was published in 2018 and is reflected in the article below 1. Classification Tumors of...

Hurthle cell

Hurthle cells are a type of oncocyte arising from thyroid follicular epithelial cells. Terminology The term Hurthle cell is now officially discouraged as the cells discovered by Hurthle were actually parafollicular C cells 5. Pathology Under microscopy, Hurthle cells are larger than typical ...

Maternal serum alpha fetoprotein

Maternal serum alpha fetoprotein (MSAFP) is a screening test that examines the level of alpha fetoprotein (AFP) in a pregnant woman. AFP is produced by both the yolk sac and foetal liver during pregnancy. Indications Ideally, all pregnant women should undergo the screening test between 15-20 w...

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin (Hb) is the oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells. Structure Hemoglobin is a tetrameric protein molecule composed of four subunits. Each subunit consists of an iron-containing cyclic heme component linked to a polypeptide chain, the polypeptides are together known as globin. E...

Blood

Blood is a connective tissue usually found in a liquid phase; it comprises a fluid component called plasma (about 55% of the total volume), in which lies the cellular component, comprising several cell lineages, primarily the white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets. In an average adult ...

Synechiae

Synechiae (singular: synechia, alternative plural: synechias) are another term for adhesions, which in radiological contexts usually relates to bands of scar tissue between structures, e.g. within the abdominal cavity or pleural cavity or within the uterus. Pathology Synechia can be found thro...

Desmoplasia

Desmoplasia, also known as a desmoplastic reaction, is the term used by pathologists to refer to the growth of fibrous tissue around disease, usually cancer. However in dermatopathology, desmoplasia may also be seen with benign, as well as malignant, conditions. Terminology Pathologists prefer...

Vitamin D deficiency (overview)

Vitamin D deficiency (also known as hypovitaminosis D) is common, and untreated, may result in serious sequelae. Traditionally its pathological manifestations have been regarded through the lens of skeletal maturity: rickets in children osteomalacia in adults However it has become increasingl...

Probabilistic atlas

Probabilistic atlases, also known as probability maps, are anatomical or anatomopathological atlases based on statistically-weighted composites of many specimens. Traditional anatomy atlases were based on one or a few specimens sometimes with common variations indicated or shown. Probabilistic a...

mTOR protein

The mTOR proteins, an abbreviation for mammalian target of rapamycin, also known as mechanistic target of rapamycin, are two proteins that are involved in cell signaling pathways implicated in tumorigenesis. The mTOR proteins are serine/threonine protein kinases that combine with several other ...

Phlegmon

Phlegmon (plural: phlegmons) refers to soft connective tissue inflammation, usually in the context of infectious disease. It is distinct from an abscess, which is a collection of pus walled-off by granulation tissue. Terminology and Usage Historically and contemporaneously, phlegmon is used in...

Hernia (general)

Hernias (or herniae) are a common pathological entity, in which an anatomical structure passes into an abnormal location via an opening. The opening may be a normal physiological aperture (e.g. hiatus hernia: stomach passes through the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus) or pathological. Iatrogeni...

Nitrogen

Nitrogen (chemical symbol N) is one of the basic organic elements and is a key constituent of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, and of nucleic acids (i.e. DNA and RNA). On earth it is the most abundant element found in its pure form and comprises 78% of all breathable air. Chemistr...

White blood cell

White blood cells or leukocytes are one of the main cell types found in normal human blood. They are actually colourless (but appear white on light microscopy) and are divided into granular and non-granular types. Types of white blood cell: granular neutrophils eosinophils basophils non-gr...

Vitamin B complex

Historically, the vitamin B complex was the collective name given to a specific subset of the vitamins, known as the B vitamins. However the chemical structures of these compounds are structurally heterogeneous and they do not constitute a distinct biochemical group. They are all water soluble v...

Mercury

Mercury (chemical symbol Hg) is a liquid metallic element that historically was used in many medicines, but is now restricted due to legitimate concerns about mercury poisoning which is primarily found in seafood. Chemistry Basic chemistry Mercury is a silvery liquid at standard temperature a...

Basic organic elements

The basic organic elements are those chemical elements that are fundamental to life and are constituents of every or almost every organic molecule, and therefore all life known on earth. carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen

Oxygen

Oxygen (chemical symbol O) is one of the basic organic elements, and is a constituent of most of the known organic molecules - and therefore all lifeforms - on earth. Chemistry Basic chemistry Oxygen is a colourless odorless diatomic gas with an atomic number 8 and atomic weight 15.999. It h...

Primary pulmonary enteric adenocarcinoma

Pulmonary enteric adenocarcinoma (PEAC) or pulmonary adenocarcinoma with enteric differentiation (PAED) is an extremely rare variant of primary invasive adenocarcinoma of the lung. It has morphological and immunohistochemical profiles overlapping with that of colorectal carcinoma. Due to this, i...

ROS1 mutation

The ROS1 mutation is a mutation occurring in the ROS1 oncogene on chromosome 6 resulting in a defective receptor tyrosine kinase which has structural similarity to the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) protein. It is thought to be present in several cancers of the subtype non-small cell lung can...

Well differentiated fetal adenocarcinoma of lung

A well-differentiated fetal adenocarcinoma (WDFA) of lung is a rare low grade lung tumor. Some consider this as a variant of adenocarcinoma with others considering this under the group of pulmonary blastomas 5. According to classification by the World Health Organization in 1999, it was remove...

Atypical pulmonary carcinoid tumor

An atypical pulmonary carcinoid tumor is a more aggressive variant of a pulmonary carcinoid tumor. They are less common and considered intermediate grade neoplasms and have the same “carcinoid morphology,” but with mitotic rates increased (at 2–10 mitoses per 2 mm2) where the tumor might also be...

Vascular invasion in lung cancer

Vascular invasion in lung cancer is one of the invasive patterns that can occur in lung cancer. Dependent on the publication, this could mean: intratumoral vascular invasion (IVI) microscopic vascular invasion (MVI) lymphovascular invasion (LVI) lymphatic permeation arterial invasion veno...

Tumor spread through air spaces

Tumor spread through air spaces (STAS) is a relatively recently recognized pattern of invasion in lung adenocarcinoma. According to the 2015 WHO classification, STAS is defined as “micropapillary clusters, solid nests, or single cells spreading within air spaces beyond the edge of the main tumor...

HER-2 mutations in lung cancer

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2) mutations may be detected in approximately 3% of lung adenocarcinomas 1. Radiographic features CT Early studies have suggested HER2-mutant tumors exhibit more aggressive features in general and tend to: exhibit a locally-invasive behavior comp...

KRAS mutation

KRAS (shortened name for the gene Kirsten RAt Sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) mutations are associated in a number of malignancies including: certain adenocarcinomas of the lung colorectal carcinoma 1 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma Several germline KRAS mutations have also been found to b...

EGFR mutation

An epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation may be expressed in a large proportion of non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC). However, certain subtypes such as invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung can have very low expression. The presence of this mutation can be assessed on bio...

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene rearrangements

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene rearrangements are known to occur in association with several tumors. The genes code for an enzyme called anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) or ALK tyrosine kinase receptor (also known as CD246) which is thought to play a role in brain development and exerts i...

Thyroid transcription factor 1

Thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF1) refers to a homeodomain-containing nuclear transcription factor that belongs to the Nkx2 gene family encoded by a gene located on chromosome 14q13. It is expressed in the forebrain, thyroid and lung tissues. The presence of TTF-1 protein on a tissue sample ...

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)-targeted monoclonal antibodies

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)-targeted monoclonal antibodies interact with a protein called PD-1 on T-cells and can be useful in determining if certain immunomodulation therapies can be used in treatment of certain types of cancers. PD-L1 is a major immune checkpoint protein that mediates an...

Chemical element

There are now 118 confirmed chemical elements in the periodic table. A chemical element describes atoms which share the same specific number of protons in their nucleus (atomic number or Z). For example, all atoms of carbon, regardless of their number of electrons (determines ionization) or neut...

Naming of organisms

Occasionally, we will refer to lifeforms in an article or case, and we adhere to standard scientific convention when it comes to naming of organisms, as set down by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) 1. As per the standard binomial system, the genus and species of the...

Gene and protein notation

Correct usage of gene and protein notation has been laid down by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) and on Radiopaedia we have decided to reflect this official guidance. In concordance with this standard scientific practice, gene symbols are italicized on Radiopaedia, but when the full...

Scientific notation

In general, the Radiopaedia style guide adheres to internationally-agreed standards for scientific notation. The main exception is isotope notation, for which we have decided to drop the use of superscripted mass numbers. anatomic nomenclature chemical element notation genes and proteins nam...

Chemical element notation

The notation of the 118 known chemical elements is prescribed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) 1. Each chemical element has a long name and a symbol. In English the long name is only capitalized as part of title or sentence case. Chemical element names are not p...

Creatine kinase

Creatine kinase (CK), also known as creatine phosphokinase (CPK), is a key enzyme, for energy production in mitochondria and muscle tissues. It is important as a diagnostic assay in clinical practice, primarily because inflamed/injured muscle releases creatine kinase into the circulation 1. Phy...

Micrometastasis

Micrometastases are defined by the UICC TNM Classification of Malignant Tumors as conglomerations of tumor cells measuring between 0.2 mm and 2 mm in size. Clusters of cells sized less than 0.2 mm in maximal dimension are termed isolated tumor cells (ITCs). Tumor clusters measuring larger than 2...

Lactate dehydrogenase

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH or LD) is a key enzyme in most cells, catalyzing the reversible conversion of pyruvate to L-lactate. Its contemporaneous main clinical uses are limited primarily to the investigation of hemolysis, serous collections and as a tumor marker. Physiology L-lactate dehydro...

Multilocular cystic renal neoplasm of low malignant potential

Multilocular cystic renal neoplasm of low malignant potential is a low-grade adult renal tumor composed entirely of numerous cysts. The entity was previously known as multilocular cystic renal cell carcinoma, which usually had clear cell morphology, but was redefined in the 2016 WHO classificati...

Cobalt

Cobalt (chemical symbol Co) is an essential trace element. Its most important function in humans is as the active metal atomic center of vitamin B12. Chemistry Basic chemistry Cobalt is a shiny grey-silvery transition metal with an atomic number 27 and atomic weight 58.93. Its oxidation state...

Zinc

Zinc (chemical symbol Zn) is a trace element with a key role as a constituent of enzymes, e.g. carbonic anhydrase, and as part of zinc finger proteins, vital for the correct folding of macromolecules, such as DNA. More recently zinc has been found to act as an important cellular messenger 3. Ch...

Serum ascites albumin gradient

The serum–ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) is the difference between the concurrently obtained serum albumin concentration and the albumin concentration of the ascitic fluid obtained during paracentesis. Pathology A difference ≥1.1 grams/deciliter (g/dL) indicates portal hypertension as the li...

Estimated glomerular filtration rate

The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is widely used as a surrogate marker of renal function and is mathematically derived from the patient's serum creatinine, using their age, sex and ethnicity. There is some controversy over whether ethnicity should be included in the calculations. ...

Beryllium

Beryllium (chemical symbol Be) is an alkaline earth metallic element, that has no known function in any organism. Unfortunately beryllium is very poisonous, manifesting as chronic beryllium lung disease, which causes premature mortality in one third 1. Chemistry Basic chemistry Beryllium is a...

Gadolinium

Gadolinium (chemical symbol Gd) is a metallic element that can be chelated into paramagnetic complexes for use as gadolinium contrast media. Chemistry Basic chemistry Gadolinium is a silvery rare earth metal, and a member of the lanthanides, with the atomic number 64 and an atomic weight of 1...

Extranodal extension

Extranodal extension refers to the growth of a nodal cancer metastasis beyond the confines of the capsule of a lymph node into adjacent tissues. Less preferred synonyms include extranodal spread, extracapsular extension, or extracapsular spread. This finding holds prognostic implications. For e...

Lead

Lead (chemical symbol Pb) is a toxic metallic element with no known biological function in humans. Chemistry Basic chemistry Lead is one of the post-transition metals with the atomic number 82 and atomic weight 207.2. It is grayish in color and is pliable, poorly electrically-conducting with ...

CA 15-3

CA 15-3 is a tumor marker used in monitoring breast cancer. The test detects levels of MUC-1, a mucin protein in the blood. MUC-1 is thought to be important in the invasiveness and metastasization of cancer cells. Physiology Mucin-1 is a normal epithelial cellular glycoprotein localized to the...

Heavy metals

Heavy metals is a vague term for a group of metallic chemical elements that under some definitions can refer to the vast majority of the metals known to science. In biological/medical terms heavy metals are a much smaller group, that for many practitioners is restricted to those that are potenti...

Sulfur

Sulfur (chemical symbol S) is one of the essential trace elements. It has an important biological role as part of sulfur-containing amino acids and other important biochemical species such as glutathione, hydrogen sulfide, and coenzyme A. Terminology Sulfur has been the preferred spelling of t...

Manganese

Manganese (chemical symbol Mn) is one of the essential trace elements. It has an important biological role in the synthetic pathway for mucopolysaccharides, and it also is a cofactor for several enzymes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Manganese has the atomic number 25 with an atomic weight of 54....

Essential elements

The essential elements are chemical elements which are essential for optimal physical and mental well being, and required in bulk (cf. trace elements) quantities in a normal human diet. The elements are: calcium magnesium phosphorus potassium sodium

Molybdenum

Molybdenum (chemical symbol Mo) is one of the essential trace elements. It complexes with a molecule called molybdopterin to form molybdenum cofactor, essential for the functioning of several important metabolic enzymes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Molybdenum has the atomic number 42, with an ...

Neurofibromin

Neurofibromin is a protein coded for by the NF1 gene located on chromosome 17 (17q11.2). It is a multifunctional protein and is involved in the regulation of many cellular signaling pathways. In patients with a mutation of the NF1 gene, neurofibromin is defective and results in the clinical synd...

Sentinel lymph node

The sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) are defined as those lymph nodes that directly drain a malignancy, or alternatively can be considered as the first node(s) that a tumor metastasizes to. History and etymology "Sentinel node" as the initial draining node of a malignancy was first used in a paper ...

Copper

Copper (chemical symbol Cu) is one of the trace elements. It has an important biological role as a redox agent and as a cofactor in cuproproteins, facilitating many vital metabolic reactions. Chemistry Basic chemistry Copper is a transition metal with the atomic number 29 and an atomic weight...

MAPK pathway

The MAPK pathway (mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway) also known as the RAS/MAPK pathway is an oncogenic pathway and is most commonly involved in human cancers. It consists of a membrane receptor tyrosine kinase which when bound to by a growth factor results in activation of the signal t...

Primary lung tumors in children

Pediatric primary lung tumors are rare in children however they must be distinguished from locally aggressive inflammatory conditions and benign disease. 1 Primary lung tumors in the neonates and infants include: pleuropulmonary blastoma (PPB) infantile fibrosarcoma of the lung fetal lung in...

Selenium

Selenium (chemical symbol Se) is one of the trace elements. It has a vital role in the metabolism of the thyroid hormones and for the functioning of several important enzymes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Selenium has the atomic number 34 with an atomic weight of 78.96 g/mol. It is a non-metal a...

Chromium

Chromium (chemical symbol Cr) has been categorized previously as one of the trace elements, and has been said to be important for glucose homeostasis, but this is now contentious (see below). Chemistry Basic chemistry Chromium has the atomic number 24 with an atomic weight of 51.9961 g/mol. L...

Anemia

Anemia is the presence of reduced hemoglobin in the blood. Formally, the World Health Organizatiοn (WHO) defines anemia by the hemoglobin concentration in the blood according to age and sex 1: adult men: <130 g/L adult women: <120 g/L Values for pregnant women and children are differen...

Trace elements

The trace elements are chemical elements which are essential - but only in tiny quantities - for optimal physical and mental well being. The elements are: cobalt copper iodine iron manganese molybdenum selenium sulfur zinc It is now contentious whether chromium is a truly essential tra...

Iron

Iron (chemical symbol Fe) is one of the trace elements that is essential for normal human health due to its central importance in the structure and function of hemoglobin and the cytochromes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Iron is a transition metal with atomic number 26 and an atomic weight of 55...

Pulmonary Acinetobacter infection

Pulmonary Acinetobacter infection refers to pulmonary infection with Acinetobacter species of which Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-A baumannii complex accounts for a considerable proportion. Pulmonary infection with this organism can cause hospital-acquired pneumonia (especially the late onset typ...

Alpha-fetoprotein

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is an important plasma protein synthesized by the yolk sac and fetal liver. In adults, its main utility is as a tumor marker, primarily for hepatocellular carcinoma or teratoma. Functionally it is the fetal homologue of albumin i.e. it acts as a major carrier protein in t...

Proteins

Proteins comprise long chains of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Structure A peptide bond is formed by the carboxyl group of one amino acid linking to the amino group of the next one. Arbitrarily proteins are categorized according to length of the amino acid chain: if less than...

Amino acids

Amino acids are the monomeric building blocks of proteins. Amino acids concatenate into chains, which are arbitrarily divided into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins according to chain length. Generally, chains of 10 or fewer amino acids are deemed to be peptides, chain length from 10-100 are p...

Macromolecular complex

Macromolecular complexes include both macrohormones and macroenzymes, which consist of hormones and enzymes respectively covalently bound to carrier molecules, e.g. immunoglobulins, or occasionally the molecule may self-polymerize. Their primary importance lies in their ability to produce an art...

Elevated vitamin B12 (marker)

Elevated vitamin B12 (also known as hypervitaminosis B12 or hypercobalaminemia) is most important as a diagnostic and prognostic marker for malignant disease 1,3. Very high serum levels of vitamin B12, following dietary megadosing, does not seem to have any observable deleterious effects 2.

Fistula

A fistula (plural: fistulae or fistulas) is an abnormal connection between two epithelial surfaces such as between hollow organs, skin or vessels. Conventionally, the name of a specific fistula type is a combination of the two organs. For discussions of specific fistulae please refer to individu...

Macrolipasemia

Macrolipasemia is the presence of serum lipase of a large molecular size, seen occasionally in otherwise healthy individuals, but more commonly in various diseases. Lipase is able to self-polymerize and/or form complexes with other blood proteins e.g. immunoglobulins. Epidemiology Epidemiologi...

Macroamylasemia

Macroamylasemia is the presence of serum amylase of a large molecular size, seen in both otherwise healthy individuals, and also in various diseases. Amylase seems to be able to self-polymerize and/or form complexes with other blood proteins, e.g. immunoglobulins. Epidemiology Macroamylasemia ...

Amylase

Amylase is widely employed as a marker of acute pancreatitis and a significant elevation is diagnostic. Physiology α-amylase is a digestive enzyme that is predominantly secreted by the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas. It is also secreted by the salivary glands. Pancreatic amylase is enco...

Lamellated

The term lamellated (or laminated which means the same thing) is a radiopathological term used to describe the layered appearance of many calculi, including those of the renal tract, the salivary glands, and the biliary tree. The internal structure of these calculi has been likened to that of an...

Septum

Septa (singular: septum) are anatomical or pathological sheet-like structures that subdivide a component of normal anatomy or a lesion. Terminology Septa is the plural of the Latin word septum. Septae and septi are erroneous forms and are not words in English, nor correct plurals in Latin 2. S...

Filtered (1)Done (clear)

+Systems

×Article Sections

+Sort By

ADVERTISEMENT: Supporters see fewer/no ads

Updating… Please wait.

Unable to process the form. Check for errors and try again.

Thank you for updating your details.