Articles

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Malignant transformation

Malignant transformation is the term given to the process whereby either normal, metaplastic, or benign neoplastic tissue, becomes a cancer. The process usually occurs in a series of steps and the affected tissue gradually accumulates the genetic mutations that express a malignant phenotype. The...

Hematoma

Hematomas (alternative plural: hematomata) are the name given to localized collections of blood and they can form virtually anywhere in the body. They often form secondary to trauma or surgery but spontaneous formation is also not uncommon, especially in those with coagulation disorders or on an...

Decomposition

Decomposition of the human body occurs soon after death and is of relevance to radiology in the fields of postmortem and forensic radiology. Pathology Decomposition occurs due to two main processes 1,2: autolysis: degradation by destructive enzymes released by dying cells in the body putrefa...

Exophytic

Exophytic is a descriptive term used by radiologists/pathologists to describe solid organ lesions arising from the outer surface of the organ of origin. Literally exophytic only refers to those lesions arising from the outer surface, however radiologists and pathologists use the term to include...

Radiogenomics

Radiogenomics is a relatively recently coined term to denote the relationship between the imaging features of a particular disease and various genetic or molecular features. The former is referred to as an imaging phenotype, whereas the later as genomic phenotype. Radiogenomics, therefore, pro...

Urine

Urine represents the biofluid end-product of the renal filtration process. Normally it is a transparent, sterile, pale-yellow liquid (although clearly color varies with the person's hydration status). Urine is one of the most easily-accessible biofluids in the human body and has been intensive...

Lipase

Lipase, more specifically pancreatic lipase, is an enzyme produced in the pancreas and is responsible for the digestion of fat molecules. It may be raised (hyperlipasemia) in numerous pancreatic, hepatobiliary and other diseases but is most commonly associated with acute pancreatitis. Physiolog...

Eosinophil

Eosinophils, also less commonly known as acidophils, are myeloid granulocytes and form one of the main types of white blood cells. Their counts are routinely measured as part of a full blood count. They have important roles in fighting parasitic infections, but are increasingly recognized as hav...

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a non-specific marker of acute inflammation which is seen in a very wide spectrum of pathologies. In recent years it has been sidelined by the use of C-reactive protein and other acute phase markers but it still has an important role to play in the managem...

C-reactive protein

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase reactant commonly measured in clinical practice as a marker of inflammation and to monitor disease severity, disease course and treatment response. It should not be confused with protein C (an anticoagulant) or C-peptide (a component of proinsulin). Ph...

PSA density

The PSA density (PSAD), is a calculation performed at diagnosis and is the serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) level (ng/mL) divided by the volume of the prostate gland (mL), resulting in a value with the units, ng/mL2 1. Prostate volume is calculated from TRUS measurements 2,3. Alternativel...

Lipohyalinosis

Lipohyalinosis (also known as fibrinoid necrosis) is a disease affecting the small cerebral arteries associated with lacunar infarction and deep white matter changes related to small vessel chronic ischemia. Pathology The histopathological landmarks of lipohyalinosis are irregular fibrosis and...

Glucagon

Glucagon is a polypeptide hormone central to the regulation of glucose homeostasis, acting as an antagonist to insulin. In imaging, it is used as an antiperistaltic agent in GI studies, although its clinical efficacy is controversial. Structure Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide hormone ...

Cerumen

Cerumen, also known as earwax, is a natural secretion produced by and found within the external auditory canal (EAC). It has important roles as part of the first line of defense of the ear from micro-organisms and optimizing function of the tympanic membrane and EAC. Secretion Cerumen is secre...

Fecal calprotectin

Fecal calprotectin (FCAL) is a protein marker of gut inflammation. It is used as a diagnostic tool and marker of disease activity for Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis. Biochemistry Calprotectin is a protein complex from the S-100 family, which is formed of three polypeptide chains, two hea...

Thyroseq

Thyroseq® is an expanded gene classifier test designed for further evaluation of indeterminate thyroid nodules on fine needle aspiration (FNA). In particular, it is designed to further evaluate nodules that show atypia of undetermined significance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance (...

Iodine

Iodine (chemical symbol I) is one of the trace elements. Its biological importance is its central place in the physiology of the thyroid gland and, in radiology, as the key chemical constituent of most of the radiographic, fluoroscopic, and CT contrast media. Chemistry Basic chemistry Iodine ...

CDKN2A/p16

CDKN2A (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A) is a tumor suppressor gene that encodes for the p16 protein, involved in the CDK4/6–RB1 cell-cycle pathway 5. p16 is a widely used immunohistochemical marker indicating expression of the cell cycle protein, which is upregulated by human papillomavi...

Prostate-specific membrane antigen

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), also known as glutamate carboxypeptidase II, is a type II transmembrane glycoprotein that has become an increasingly prominent imaging biomarker 1. PSMA has emerged as a useful target in PET imaging of prostate cancer, especially in the evaluation of sm...

Liquefactive necrosis

Liquefactive necrosis is a form of necrosis where there is transformation of the tissue into a liquid viscous mass. Pathology In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes leading to a soft, circumscribed lesion which can consist of fluid with remains...

TP53 (gene)

The TP53 gene, located on chromosome 17, is a tumor suppressor gene, responsible for the production of the p53 protein, a transcription regulatory protein which works in concert with a number of other proteins, together forming the p53 pathway 1,2. Inherited mutations in this gene result in the...

Verocay bodies

Verocay bodies are a histological feature of schwannomas and represent a particular growth pattern of Antoni type A pattern in which tumor cells form alternating parallel rows of nuclear palisades separated by regions of acellularity 1.

Synaptophysin

Synaptophysin is a membrane glycoprotein found in presynaptic vesicles and is commonly used as an immunohistochemical marker for cells of neuronal (e.g. gangliogliomas) and neuroendocrine lineage (e.g. pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas) 1,2. In the brain, it has been suggested that perisoma...

S100

S100 is a family of cytoplasmic calcium-binding proteins expressed in numerous cell lines which can be targeted by immunohistochemistry. Staining for S100 is helpful in characterizing a number of tumors, including malignant melanoma, glial tumors, neurogenic tumors (e.g. schwannomas and neurofib...

Vimentin

Vimentin is a fairly widespread cytoskeletal component encoding for intermediate filaments. It can be used as a target for immunohistochemistry to help characterize numerous tissues and tumors.

Epithelial membrane antigen (EMA)

Epithelial membrane antigen (EMA) also known as CD227, MUC1 or episialin is a cell surface mucin glycoprotein found on many ductal and glandular epithelial cells and some hematopoietic cells. Usage It serves as a target in immunohistochemistry where it is a common epithelial marker and express...

Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP)

Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) is a commonly used target for immunohistochemistry and is positive in many glial cells and tumors of glial origin. GFAP is the building block for intermediate filaments which are abundant in the cytoplasms particularly of astrocytes. Related pathology Alex...

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemistry is a method of assessing histology with the use of antibodies to specific antigens. It is complementary to the older technique of chemical staining of tissues but is often combined with a counter-stain for context (e.g. hematoxylin to stain cell nuclei blue). The process e...

Perivascular pseudorosettes (ependymoma)

Perivascular pseudorosettes are a common histologic feature of central nervous system ependymomas. They represent sections through papillary structures composed of tumor cells arranged radially around a central vessel. Between the central vessel and the tumor cells is a relatively microscopicall...

Microglia

Microglia is one of the four types of glial cell and are the central nervous system equivalent of monocyte-macrophage system 1,2. During health, they are essentially inactive with small cell bodies and numerous processes extending throughout the local parenchyma 1,2. When presented a condition w...

Tanycytes

Tanycytes are one of the three types of ependymal cells, themselves a type of glial cell. They are found lining the floor of the third ventricle overlying the median eminence of the hypothalamus 1. It is believed that these specialized cells are involved in the feedback mechanisms on the ante...

Choroidal epithelial cells

Choroidal epithelial cells are one of the three types of ependymal cells, themselves a type of glial cell. They cover the surface of the choroid plexus and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 1.

Ependymal cells

Ependymal cells are one of the four main types of glial cells, and themselves encompass three types of cells 1: ependymocytes: line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord tanycytes: line the floor of the third ventricle overlying the median eminence of the hypothalam...

Ependymocytes

Ependymocytes are one of the three types of ependymal cells, which in turn are one of the four principles types of glial cells, and are found lining the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord 1. They do not form a water-tight barrier between the cerebrospinal ...

Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes are one of the four principles types of glial cells and are the central nervous system equivalent of the Schwann cells found peripherally. They wrap the neurons of the brain and spinal cord with myelin 1. See also oligodendroglioma

Glial cells

Glial cells, or neuroglia, are cells that surround the neurons of the central nervous system embedded between them, providing both structural and physiological support 1-3. Together they account for almost half of the total mass 1 and 90% of all cells of the central nervous system 3. These numb...

Neuron

Neurons are cells of the central nervous system, located within the grey matter, and responsible for all neurological functions of the brain. Structure Neurons vary in morphology and size substantially, but all share a number of features 1: a cell body nucleus perikaryon: cytoplasm surroun...

Astrocytes

Astrocytes are cells of the central nervous system which act as both physical and physiological support for the neurons that are embedded between them, regulating water movement, facilitating metabolic exchange between neurons and capillaries, as well as responding to mechanical and biochemical ...

Histological stains

Histological stains are chemical dyes used to treat histological specimens to make tissues more readily visible by light microscopy and demonstrate underlying characteristics of the tissue. There are many stains, some with very specific uses, whereas other (e.g. hematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E)...

Alzheimer type I glia

Alzheimer type I glia are a type of glial cell. They are large multinucleated astrocytes encountered in glial tumors and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) 1.

Alzheimer type II glia

Alzheimer type II glia are a type of glial cell. They are a pathological reactive astrocyte seen in the brain, unrelated to Alzheimer disease. They are seen most frequently in Wilson disease, but also in other systemic metabolic disorders, particularly those with elevated ammonia levels, typical...

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 (hydroxocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin or B12a) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, and synthesized by intestinal flora that forms a cobalt-based coenzyme that is required for two vital cellular reactions, namely the production of methionine (an amino acid) and th...

Vitamin B9

Vitamin B9 (folate or folic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, vital for the synthesis of several amino acids, the purines adenosine and guanine and the pyrimidine thymine (three of the four nucleotide bases and hence critical for the synthesis of nucleic acids). T...

Biotin

Biotin (less commonly known as vitamin B7) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, and a coenzyme for many reactions, including gluconeogenesis and the synthesis of fatty acids and amino acids. Biotin deficiency is very rare. Biotin excess does not seem to produce any ill-ef...

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 is a group of water-soluble vitamins, part of the vitamin B complex, and that are derivatives of pyridine, the main vitamers are known as pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. All three form part of the coenzyme pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) which is involved in many cellular reactio...

Vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, that is required to synthesize coenzyme A, a very important coenzyme in many cellular metabolic reactions. Vitamin B5 deficiency (hypovitaminosis B5) is extremely rare. There is no evidence of any deleteri...

Vitamin B3

Vitamin B3 (niacin or nicotinic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, that is an important part of the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) which is involved in many reactions of cellular metabolism. Vitamin B3 is one of the hematinics. Related pathology ...

Vitamin B2

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is a water-soluble vitamin, part of the vitamin B complex, that is an important component of the cofactors flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN). The flavoproteins contribute to many cellular reactions, including the metabolism of several other...

Vitamin B1

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) is a water-soluble vitamin, that is part of the vitamin B complex, and is an important coenzyme for two reactions in the citric acid cycle (Kreb cycle). It therefore is vital for cellular ATP production, particularly in the central nervous system. Terminology Thiamine is ...

Vitamin C

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water soluble vitamin that is a coenzyme for the formation of the structure protein collagen, particularly creating cross-linking of collagen fibers which greatly increases its tensile strength. It also acts as an antioxidant. Vitamin C is one of the hematinics. H...

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is not a single compound but a family of fat-soluble vitamins essential for normal blood-clotting function and comprises two vitamers that are found naturally: phytomenadione (also known as phylloquinone or K1) and menaquinone (or K2). Menaquinone (K2) is synthesized by normal flora i...

Vitamin E

Vitamin E (the tocopherols) are a group of fat-soluble vitamins that act as antioxidants. Vitamin E are also hematinics. hypovitaminosis E is rarely seen outside premature infants hypervitaminosis E is extremely rare as the toxicity of vitamin E is low except in chronic (usually >1 year) high ...

Vitamins

Vitamins are a group of organic compounds used in biochemical pathways. Many are components of coenzymes in particular metabolic reactions. Vitamins are generally not synthesized by the human body and hence must be acquired through the diet. Vitamer is the name given to the different forms of a...

Hepascore

Hepascore is a biochemical severity scoring system based on liver function tests in predicting the extent of liver fibrosis/cirrhosis in patients with hepatitis C infection. Hepascore may also be applicable to other liver diseases and is being trialed for fatty liver disease and hepatitis B infe...

Marjolin ulcer

Marjolin ulcers reflect malignant degeneration within pre-existing scars or areas of chronic inflammation such as burns or venous ulcers. Epidemiology Incidence is around 1-2% from all burn scars 1,2. The average latency period between initial injury to malignant transformation is 30-35 years....

BRAF

BRAF (B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase) is a proto-oncogene, encoding for a serine/threonine protein kinase. Mutations of BRAF are the most common alteration of the RAS/MAPK pathway and these have been identified in a variety of tumors and congenital syndromes including 1-5: ...

Atypical small acinar proliferation

Atypical small acinar proliferations (ASAP) are premalignant lesions of the prostate, which can be found in as many as 5% of prostate biopsies. They are suspicious glands without adequate histologic atypia to establish a definitive diagnosis of prostate cancer. Some studies showed that there is ...

Immunity

The human body regularly encounters harmful micro-organisms, and because of this it has developed a system of defenses to help identify and eliminate infective pathogens in the body, known as immunity, executed by the immune system. This system also contributes to antioncogenic mechanisms. Type...

Vitamin D

Vitamin D (calciferol) is used to describe a group of five fat-soluble secosteroid vitamins required for the homeostasis of serum calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D exists in two main forms (vitamers) in humans: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). Vitamin D3 acts by re...

2-hydroxyglutarate

2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG) is a metabolite that accumulates in the brains of patients with IDH1 mutated (IDH1 positive) brain tumors, particularly diffuse low-grade gliomas. Although not in widespread clinical use, it is likely that 2-hydroxyglutarate, which resonates at 2.25 ppm, will be able to ...

14-3-3 protein

14-3-3 proteins are found in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and are currently used to help identify patients with sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD). Seven distinct 14-3-3 proteins have been found in humans. In diagnosing sCJD, the sensitivity of 14-3-3 protein is 92%, and its specifici...

Human epididymis protein 4

Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is an emerging serum biomarker in the assessment of epithelial ovarian tumors. HE4 is a member of the whey associated protein (WAP) gene cluster and has uncertain biological function 1. Early results indicate that HE4 has higher sensitivity and specificity than ...

Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette

The presence of Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette is characteristic for retinoblastoma but is also seen in pineoblastoma and medulloepitheliomas.

Prostate specific antigen

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is currently used as a tumor marker for prostate adenocarcinoma. PSA is a 33 kilodalton glycoprotein produced in prostate epithelial cells. Its normal physiologic role is as a liquefying agent for seminal fluid; only a tiny amount leaks into the blood, therefore ...

Hypersensitivity reaction

Hypersensitivity reactions are the immunological response to both exogenous and endogenous antigens, and form the basis for many diseases. Pathology Classification Using the Gell and Coombs' classification, there are four types of hypersensitivity reactions, each mediated by a different mech...

Metaplasia

Metaplasia is a general pathology term that refers to the process when one cell type is replaced by another. It usually occurs in the context of a changed cellular environment to which the new cell type is better adapted 1. Examples include 2-5: Barrett esophagus: normal squamous epithelium rep...

Tumor markers

Tumor markers are a group of molecules in serum that are elevated in various malignancies and are often used to monitor treatment response as well as alert for potential progressive disease when in remission. Commonly used markers include: AFP (alpha fetoprotein) beta-hCG CA 15-3 CA 19-9 C...

CEA

Serum CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) is a cell-adhesive glycoprotein that was discovered in colorectal cancer in 1965, and is hence one of the oldest and most used tumor markers. Its name derives from its normal expression in fetoembryonic liver, gut and pancreas tissue. Normal range of CEA is ...

Urethral duplication

Urethral duplication is a rare condition in which either a part of the entire urethra is duplicated. It usually occurs in the sagittal plane and the more dorsal copy is usually the duplication. Pathology Urethral duplications may occur due to a variety of developmental anomalies. In females, i...

Alpha-thalassemia intellectual disability syndrome X-linked (ATRX) gene (tumor marker)

Alpha-thalassemia intellectual disability syndrome X-linked (ATRX) gene is an important genomic marker of gliomas and is either intact (ATRX-wildtype) or mutated (ATRX-mutant) and is correlated with other important genomic markers including IDH, 1p19q codeletion, and p53 expression 1,2. ATRX a...

Fibromatosis

Fibromatosis (plural: fibromatoses) refers to a wide range of soft tissue lesions that share an underlying histopathologic pattern of fibrous tissue proliferation. They can occur in a variety of anatomic sites (e.g. musculoskeletal, abdominopelvic, breast, etc.) and also vary in their behavior,...

Reed-Sternberg cells

Reed-Sternberg cells are a classical finding diagnostic of Hodgkin lymphoma. They are giant, multinucleated cells with abundant pale cytoplasm. Reed-Sternberg cells are rare, making up <1% of lymphoid tissue, with the background consisting of lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils and macrophages.

Tissue tropism

Tissue tropism is a phenomenon by which certain host tissues preferentially support the growth and proliferation of pathogens. This concept is central to the radiological evaluation of infectious disease. Pathology As infections that display tissue tropism will thrive in certain tissue locati...

Kikuchi level

The Kikuchi level is a histopathological term used for describing the degree of infiltration of a sessile early invasive colorectal cancer1. Preoperative assessment of the level of invasion using this classification may decrease the incidence of unnecessary surgery for sessile polyps. Levels o...

1p19q codeletion

1p19q codeletion stands for the combined loss of the short arm chromosome 1 (i.e. 1p) and the long arm of chromosome 19 (i.e. 19q) and is recognized as a genetic marker predictive of therapeutic response to both chemotherapy and combined chemoradiotherapy and overall longer survival in patients ...

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) gene mutations are increasingly being recognized as key genetic prognostic markers for diffuse gliomas, and form the basis for diffuse adult-type gliomas in the WHO classification of brain tumors 7. Somatic mutations of IDH result in enchondromatosis syndromes: Ol...

Circumferential resection margin

Circumferential resection margin (CRM) is a term used to denote the standard plane of excision of total mesorectal excision, used for resection of rectal cancers. The anatomic correlate is the mesorectal fascia. The distance between tumor tissue or satellite tumor deposits and the mesorectal fas...

John Cunningham virus

John Cunningham virus (or human polyomavirus 2), universally known as the JC virus, is a ubiquitous double-stranded DNA virus of the polyomaviridae family 1. In immunocompromised individuals, reactivation can lead to a variety of disease of the central nervous system, the most common of which is...

Gliosis

Gliosis is a reactive process occurring after some time following most types of central nervous system injuries and is the result of focal proliferation of glial cells, particularly astrocytes. Terminology Although the terms astrocytic gliosis or astrocytosis are often used interchangeably wi...

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) is a protein found in the maternal circulation and is produced by the placenta. The PAPP-A gene has been assigned to human chromosome 9q33.1 and contains 22 exons 5. PAPP-A values tend to rise exponentially during pregnancy and the reference range d...

Ependymal rosettes (ependymoma)

Ependymal rosettes correspond to a histologic architectural pattern that are characteristic of ependymomas, as tumor cells form structures similar to the lining of normal ventricles. They are characterized by a halo or spoke-wheel arrangement of tumor cells surrounding an empty central tubule lu...

Gene expression classifier

A gene expression classifier (GEC) test is a developing technology in the analysis of indeterminate thyroid nodules, using cells from a fine needle aspiration. The most common commercially available GEC in the United States is known as AFIRMA. The test is designed to use molecular markers to he...

Cell block cytology

Cell block cytology is a technique used in cytopathology (in addition to smears) for evaluation of tissue from fine needle aspirations (FNA) or fluid aspirations. Multiple different protocols exist for processing a cell block, but the fundamental principles are the same: fragmentary bits of ti...

Sinonasal polyposis

Sinonasal polyposis refers to the presence of multiple benign polyps in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Epidemiology Sinonasal polyposis is most commonly encountered in adults and rare in children. Polyps are the most common expansile lesions of the nasal cavity 8. Associations Condi...

Transcriptome

The transcriptome refers to the set of all transcribed RNA, including the messenger RNA (mRNA), which is eventually is translated into proteins, as well as non-coding RNA molecules (e.g. transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNAs (rRNA), microRNA, etc.). Unlike the genome, which is fixed (barring spo...

Pathology (article structure)

Pathology is one of the main subheadings in a standard article. Location The "Pathology" subheading is located after "Clinical presentation" and before "Radiographic features". Structure Immediately under the "Pathology" subheading a brief introduction to the relevant pathology of the condi...

Schiller-Duval body (histology)

Schiller-Duval body is a perivascular structure that can be found in 50% of testicular yolk sac tumors also known as endodermal sinus tumors. If present it is considered pathognomonic. Pathology A central vessel is surrounded by tumor cells, and the cell-vessel complex is contained in a cysti...

Homer Wright rosettes

Homer Wright rosettes are differentiated tumor cells grouped around a central region containing neuropil (therefore its association with tumors of neuronal origin). Pathology Examples of tumors where these can be seen include: medulloblastoma (the presence of Homer Wright rosettes in a poster...

Poliovirus

Poliovirus is the causative agent involved in poliomyelitis. It is a single-stranded RNA virus and one of the smallest significantly described viruses: group: group IV family: picornaviruses genus: enterovirus species: enterovirus C subtype: poliovirus Related pathology poliomyelitis pol...

Picornaviruses

Picornaviruses (pico-RNA-viruses) are non-enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses with an icosahedral capsule. Their positive, single stranded RNA architecture places them in Baltimore group IV. The name derives from the fact that they are small (pico) RNA viruses. The picornavirus family cont...

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a thin, slightly curved bacillus. A member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, it is an obligate aerobic bacterium that is the etiologic agent of the majority of tuberculosis cases. Epidemiology The worldwide incidence of tuberculosis was 8.7 million in 20...

Chromogranin A

Chromogranin A (CgA) is an acidic secretory glycoprotein found in the secretory granules of neuroendocrine cells and neurons, as is a member of the granin family of proteins. It can be used both for immunohistochemical stains and as a serum marker 4. Immunohistochemistry Chromogranin A is use...

Rim rent tear of rotator cuff

A rim rent tear of the rotator cuff, also known as partial articular surface tendon avulsion, is a specific subtype of partial-thickness rotator cuff tear that involves the articular surface footprint at the site of tendon attachment into the greater tubercle 2. Such small tears can extend along...

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