Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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MR elastography

MR elastography (MRE) is an MRI technique that can be used to assess liver stiffness. This is useful not only to detect the development of fibrosis in diffuse liver disease but also to quantify it and monitor liver fibrosis change with (or without) therapy. The main advantage over ultrasound el...

Electrical interference artifact (ultrasound)

Electrical interference artifact is an ultrasound artifact usually caused by the ultrasound machine being too close to the unshielded electrical equipment. The disturbance appears as arc-like moving bands in the ultrasound image. While the presence of electrical equipment (e.g unshielded vent...

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the world authority on the nomenclature of chemical elements and compounds. The nomenclature is designed to provide an unambiguous representation of a molecule. However, the systematic names are often not used in scientific or clin...

F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose

F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is the most common PET radiotracer. Structure The radiopharmaceutical consists of the fluorine-18 radionuclide substituting the hydroxyl group at the C-2 position of glucose. The IUPAC chemical name is 2-deoxy-2-[F-18]fluoroglucose. Production F-18 fluoride ion ...

Kernel (image reconstruction for CT)

The kernel, also known as a convolution algorithm, refers to the process used to modify the frequency contents of projection data prior to back projection during image reconstruction in a CT scanner 1. This process corrects the image by reducing blurring 1. The kernel affects the appearance of i...

Noise reduction

Noise reduction, also known as noise suppression or denoising, commonly refers to the various algorithmic techniques to reduce noise in digital images once they are created although a few sources use the term more broadly to imply anything that reduces noise. In digital image processing various ...

NIfTI (file format)

NIfTI is a type of file format for neuroimaging. Technically there are NIfTI-1 and NIfTI-2 file formats. The NIfTI-2 format is an update on NIfTI-1 that allows more data to be stored. NIfTI files are used very commonly in imaging informatics for neuroscience and even neuroradiology research. In ...

Prostate MRI protocol

Prostate MRI has become an increasingly frequent examination faced in daily radiological practice and is usually acquired as either multiparametric or biparametric MRI of the prostate. This article aims to outline the concept of an MRI protocol for the assessment of the prostate. Recommendatio...

Brain morphometry

Brain morphometry is the act of measuring various dimensions (typically volume) of parts of the brain. Historically, this was only performed post-mortem. In modern practice, this is performed in vivo using MRI. A volumetric scan of the brain (typically T1 weighted) is obtained and segmented i...

Law of Bergonié and Tribondeau

The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau is that the radiosensitivity of a biological tissue is directly proportional to the mitotic activity and inversely proportional to the degree of differentiation of its cells. This law underpins the field of radiation-oncology, although such a general law may no...

Standard triangle language

Standard triangle language (STL), is one of many file formats used for 3D printing. For biomedical 3D printing from DICOM files, DICOM files must undergo image post-processing including segmentation and then be turned into an appropriate file format for printing. Currently (2019) STL is the most...

Flash mode (CEUS)

Flash mode is a technique specific to CEUS-capable ultrasound devices, and in brief is a short ultrasound pulse with a very high mechanical index, resulting in almost complete destruction of the contrast agent microbubbles in the imaging plane. Physics The microbubbles utilized as contrast ag...

dGEMRIC (delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage)

dGEMRIC, or delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage is a technique that can be used quantitatively to assess glycosaminoglycan content of cartilage or qualitatively to asses the overall structures of cartilage. The dGEMRIC protocol consists of a T1-mapping sequence. When the technique is ad...

Windmill artifact

In CT imaging, the windmill artifact is an image distortion in the axial plane, encountered during helical multidetector acquisitions. The telltale appearance is characterized by equally distanced bright streaks diverging from a focal high-density structure. The streaks seemingly rotate while sc...

Additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing is a process, such as stereolithography, in which objects are created by adding layer after layer from the ground up. This process can be contrasted with subtractive manufacturing, a process in which unneeded material is removed to create the desired object in the same way...

MR vessel wall imaging

MR vessel wall imaging refers to MRI techniques used to evaluate for disease within the walls of arteries, beyond the luminal abnormalities depicted on angiographic imaging. This can be used anywhere in the body but is particularly important intracranially in distinguishing between various cause...

Fiber assignment by continuous tracking algorithm (FACT)

Fiber assignment by continuous tracking (FACT) algorithms are a commonly used deterministic post-processing algorithm for magnetic resonance tractography studies. In these algorithms, axonal fiber bundles are reconstructed - voxel by voxel - following the direction of the main eigenvector. The ...

Joule heating effect

The Joule heating effect is the physical phenomenon whereby the passage of electric current in a metallic conductor produces heat. The effect is the physical phenomenon on which the heating of the cathode filament of a x-ray tube depends. The electric current flowing through the tungsten filame...

Renal intraparenchymal acceleration time

Renal intraparenchymal acceleration time is a parameter used in assessing renal arterial stenosis on Doppler ultrasound. It is the time taken from the start of systole to peak systole. normal range: a value of usually <0.07 seconds (<70 ms) is taken as being within normal limits 1

Manoel de Abreu

Manoel de Abreu (1892-1962) was a Brazilian radiologist who developed chest photofluorography, which was introduced in 1936. Early life Manoel de Abreu was the son of Julio Antunes de Abreu and Mercedes da Rocha Dias. He was born in São Paulo, Brazil, on 4 January 1892 1. He graduated in 1913 ...

Fractionation (radiation therapy)

Radiation therapy is usually divided or “fractionated” over a treatment course lasting multiple weeks. Fractionation in the context of radiotherapy is the process of dividing a dose of radiation into multiple “fractions”. This practice seeks to maximize the destruction of malignant cells while m...

Film dosimeter

Film dosimeters are used to measure radiation exposure to workers to monitor radiation safety and ensuring that they receive doses below the appropriate limit. Film badges are the cheapest and most common monitoring device. They consist of a small case with a piece of film situated between fil...

Ionization chamber

Ionization chambers measure exposure by detecting liberated electron charge when x-ray photons ionize the gas within the chamber. The chambers need a high positive voltage applied at the collecting anode to attract the liberated electrons. The electron charge is collected and used to determine t...

Magnetic particle imaging

Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is an emerging cross-sectional imaging technique that in the future may be a new clinical imaging modality offering high resolution, dynamic functional imaging without utilizing ionizing radiation. Physics Magnetic particle imaging is a tracer imaging technique...

Specific absorption rate

Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the rate that electromagnetic energy in the radiofrequency pulses is absorbed by tissues during MR image acquisition measured in watts per kilogram (W/kg). Both the International Electrotechnical Commission and the Food and Drug Administration (in the USA) lim...

Volume rendering

Volume rendering is a type of data visualization technique which creates a three-dimensional representation of data. CT and MRI data are frequently visualized with volume rendering in addition to other reconstructions and slices. This technique can also be applied to tomosynthesis data. Volume ...

Blooming artifact (CT)

Blooming artifact in CT is caused by small, high density structures such as artery calcifications and metallic objects, which appear larger than their true size. The cause of the artifact is that the high Hounsfield value of such objects coupled with the use of smoothing filter kernels results...

Truncation artifact (CT)

Truncation artifact in CT is an apparently increased curvilinear band of attenuation along the edge of the image. This artifact is encountered when parts of the imaged body part remain outside the field of view (e.g. due to patient body habitus), which results in inaccurate measurement of atten...

Key figures in the history of radiology

In the history of radiology certain key figures stand out for their groundbreaking contributions to the establishment and development of radiology as a science, medical specialty and major advance in patient care. This list is by necessity arbitrary, although we (the editors) hope that the major...

Charge-coupled device detector

Charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors are used in digital radiography for the indirect conversion of x-ray photons into an electric charge (indirect because the x-ray photons are first converted into light via a scintillating screen). Structure A charge-coupled device can either be an area arr...

Time to peak (TTP)

Time-to-peak (TTP) is the time at which contrast concentration reaches its maximum. For example, for a particular dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) imaging acquisition in which images are acquired every 1.5 seconds, possible TTP values could include 20.0 seconds, 21.5 seconds, 23.0 seconds, ...

Contrast medium

Contrast media are a group of chemical agents developed to aid in the characterization of pathology by improving the contrast resolution of an imaging modality. Specific contrast media have been developed for every structural imaging modality, and every conceivable route of administration. Bari...

Ultrahigh field MRI

Ultrahigh field (UHF) magnetic resonance imaging refers to imaging done on any MRI scanner with a main magnetic field (B0) strength of 7 tesla or greater. Until recently purely a research tool, following the introduction of the first 7 T clinical scanner in 2017, there are now a slowly increasin...

Hertz

The hertz (Hz) is the derived SI unit for frequency. One hertz represents one cycle per second, and thus in base SI units, equates to one per second (1/s). In radiology, it is usually encountered in the context of ultrasound physics. Terminology As for all other eponymous units when the name i...

Quantitative computed tomography (thoracic imaging)

Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) in thoracic imaging has multiple potential applications although often not adopted in standard use in many centers at time of initial writing (2019). These include quantitating lung intensity / density and airway geometry in the normal adult human lung as...

Beam steering

Beam steering refers to altering the angle of the ultrasound beam with respect to the transducer without moving the probe. Beam steering allows a point on an image to be insonated from multiple angles from a single probe and a single position of the probe. Beam steering is accomplished by adding...

Beam focusing

Beam focusing refers to creating a narrow point in the cross-section of the ultrasound beam called the focal point. It is at the focal point where the lateral resolution of the beam is the greatest also. Before the focal point is the near field or Fresnel zone, where beams converge. Distal to th...

HRCT chest (protocol)

High-resolution CT (HRCT) of the chest, also referred to as HRCT chest or HRCT of the lungs, refers to a CT technique in which thin-slice chest images are obtained and post-processed in a high-spatial-frequency reconstruction algorithm. This technique obtains images with exquisite lung detail, w...

Training, testing and validation datasets

The division of the input data into training, testing and validation sets is crucial in the creation of robust machine learning algorithms. Firstly, machine learning algorithms require a training set to be trained on. Each iteration, it calculates the difference between the predicted and actual ...

X-ray quantity and quality

X-ray spectrum quantity refers to the number of photons within the primary x-ray beam. Factors influencing x-ray beam quantity: tube voltage (kV): beam quantity is approximately proportional to the square of the tube potential generator type/voltage waveform: reducing ripple increases beam qu...

Electron binding energy

The electron binding energy is the minimum energy that is required to remove an electron from an atom, as the negatively charged electrons are held in place by the electrostatic pull of the positively charged nucleus. The electron binding energy is measured in electronvolts (eV), where 1 eV = 1....

Metal artifact reduction algorithm

Metal artifact reduction (MAR) algorithms are used to improve CT image quality in patients with metalware, however, can be affected by novel artifacts 1-3. There are a number of commercially-available algorithms (in 2019) 1,3: iterative MAR (iMAR) - Siemens MAR for orthopedic implants (O-...

Grey scale imaging (ultrasound)

Commonly referred to as B (brightness) mode, the use of grey scale imaging in ultrasound renders a two-dimensional image in which the organs and tissues of interest are depicted as points of variable brightness. The formation of a B-mode image relies on the pulse-echo principle; assuming the spe...

Superb microvascular imaging (ultrasound)

Superb microvascular imaging (SMI) or microvascular flow imaging (MVI/MV-flow - the name varying by manufacturers) is a recently developed ultrasound imaging technique that aims to visualize low velocity and small diameter blood vessel flow. Unlike conventional color and power Doppler imaging, s...

Pion therapy

Pion therapy is a form of particle therapy employing pions. Pions, or to give them their full name, negatively-charged pi mesons (π-), are a type of meson. Pion therapy is currently not used as a treatment modality due to its great expense and lack of clinical efficacy 1,2.

Attenuation (ultrasound)

The amplitude and intensity of ultrasound waves decrease as they travel through tissue, a phenomenon known as attenuation. Given a fixed propagation distance, attenuation affects high frequency ultrasound waves to a greater degree than lower frequency waves. This dictates the use of lower freque...

Tissue Doppler imaging (echocardiography)

A variant of pulsed wave Doppler, tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) is a modality in echocardiography that allows measurement of the velocity of myocardial movement throughout the cardiac cycle. Physics Color flow, pulsed wave, and continuous wave Doppler are designed to analyze the Doppler shifts ...

Neutron therapy

Neutron therapy is a form of particle therapy using neutrons as the energy-carrying particle. The therapy has shown promise for some malignancies but there have also been problems with accurate dose distributions and late complications. Some of these problems historically were thought to be - at...

Particle therapy

Particle therapy (also known as hadronic therapy) is the generic term used for any type of external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) employing high-energy particles. Currently proton therapy accounts for most of this type of EBRT. Although strictly a form of particle therapy, electron therapy is usually...

Color flow Doppler (ultrasound)

The use of color flow Doppler (CFD) or color Doppler imaging (CDI) (or simply color Doppler) sonography allows the visualization of flow direction and velocity within a user defined area. A region of interest is defined by the sonographer, and the Doppler shifts of returning ultrasound waves wit...

Spectral Doppler (ultrasound)

Utilizing automated Fourier analysis to convert returning sound waves into a series of individual frequencies, spectral Doppler refers to ultrasound modalities which yield graphical representations of flow velocity over time. Terminology The frequency of the sound waves returned to an ultraso...

Cobalt

Cobalt (chemical symbol Co) is an essential trace element. Its most important function in humans is as the active metal atomic center of vitamin B12. Chemistry Basic chemistry Cobalt is a shiny grey-silvery transition metal with an atomic number 27 and atomic weight 58.93. Its oxidation state...

M-mode (ultrasound)

Often utilized for its excellent axial and temporal resolution of structures, M-mode (or motion mode) is a form of ultrasonography in which a single scan line is emitted, received, and displayed graphically. An M-mode recording is conventionally displayed with the abscissa representing time, and...

Tube current modulation

Tube current modulation is a feature of modern CT scanners to alter the strength of the beam by modulating the current of the x-ray tube depending on the signal to noise ratio. The purpose of tube current modulation is to maintain a near constant signal to noise ratio in the image across differe...

Lateral resolution (ultrasound)

Lateral resolution in ultrasound refers to the ability to discern two separate objects that are adjacent to each other. Lateral resolution is roughly four times worse than axial resolution in ultrasound. It is primarily determined by the width of the ultrasound beam. Strategies to improve later...

Axial resolution (ultrasound)

Axial resolution in ultrasound refers to the ability to discern two separate objects that are longitudinally adjacent to each other in the ultrasound image. Axial resolution is generally around four times better than lateral resolution. Axial resolution is defined by the equation: axial resolut...

Transducer-related artifact

Artifacts in ultrasound imaging may result from faults in the transducer itself or in the transducer cable.

Multiplanar reformation (MPR)

Multiplanar reformation or reconstruction (MPR) involves the process of converting data from an imaging modality acquired in a certain plane, usually axial, into another plane 1. It is most commonly performed with thin-slice data from volumetric CT in the axial plane, but it may be accomplished ...

Pulsatility index (ultrasound)

The pulsatility index (PI) (also known as the Gosling index) is a calculated flow parameter in ultrasound, derived from the maximum, minimum, and mean Doppler frequency shifts during a defined cardiac cycle. Along with the resistive index (RI), it is typically used to assess the resistance in a ...

Air bubble artifact

The air bubble artifact on CT is due to the presence of abnormal gas in the oil coolant which surrounds the x-ray tube. The artifact manifests as subtle low density, which has only been described on brain scans. Cause The x-ray tube in a CT scanner is prevented from overheating by a heat excha...

Magnetic resonance lymphangiography

Magnetic resonance lymphangiography (MRL) is an imaging technique used to visualize and map the lymphatic vessels. The technique is used for treatment planning in supermicrosurgical procedures, including lymphaticovenous anastomosis, lymphaticolymphatic bypass and vascularized lymph node transfe...

Indocyanine green lymphangiography

Indocyanine green (ICG) lymphangiography is an emerging imaging technique used to visualize lymphatic vessels and map their course as they drain to sentinel lymph nodes. History Indocyanine green is a fluorescent dye discovered by researchers at Kodak working on near-infrared photography in 1...

Histogram equalization

Histogram equalization is a digital image processing technique used for contrast enhancement across a number of modalities in radiology. In conjunction with other methods, histogram equalization forms one of the key digital image processing techniques utilized in the windowing of images. It is o...

Blooming artifact (ultrasound)

Blooming or color bleed artifact occurs when the color signal indicating blood flow extends beyond its true boundaries, spreading into adjacent regions with no actual flow. This artifact mainly affects the portion of the image distal to the vessel and the transducers. It is somewhat similar to ...

Texture analysis

Texture analysis is a non-invasive, mathematical method assessing the spatial heterogeneity of regions of interest in medical imaging, its primary application is in the assessment of tumors. Although not a new topic of research, the past decade has seen a significant resurgence of texture analys...

Aliasing phenomenon (ultrasound)

Aliasing is a phenomenon inherent to Doppler modalities which utilize intermittent sampling in which an insufficient sampling rate results in an inability to record direction and velocity accurately. Physics Unlike continuous wave Doppler, pulsed wave and color flow Doppler modalities alterna...

Pulse repetition frequency

Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) indicates the number of ultrasound pulses emitted by the transducer over a designated period of time. It is typically measured as cycles per second or hertz (Hz). In medical ultrasound the typically used range of PRF varies between 1 and 10 kHz 1. PRF is limited ...

Superparamagnetic iron oxide

Superparamagnetic iron oxides (SPIOs) are a class of MR contrast agents composed of nanoparticles of iron oxide crystals coated in carbohydrates. They are used to image vasculature and the liver via shortening T1 and T2/T2* relaxation times. The main agent currently used is ferumoxytol (Ferahem...

Erg (unit)

The erg (symbol, erg, i.e. the same as the unit) is the unit of energy in the cgs system, where one erg represents the work done when a force of one dyne is acting over a distance of one cm and is equivalent to 1 x 10-7 joules. The rad, a legacy unit of absorbed radiation dose, was defined as t...

Radiation dose considerations in CT fluoroscopy

Consideration needs to be made to the radiation dose to both the patient and radiologist in CT fluoroscopy, given the relatively high and continuous radiation exposure involved. Radiation exposure to the patient The patient surface dosage may range between 2 and 10 mGy/sec, with exposure times...

Image reconstruction in CT fluoroscopy

Image reconstruction in CT fluoroscopy requires the computer to provide very fast reconstructions of images in order to provide immediate and accurate spatial and anatomical feedback during a procedure. This is achieved by: use of a small reconstruction matrix – e.g. 256 x 256 (compared with co...

CT fluoroscopy

Computed tomography (CT) fluoroscopy combines the conventional advantages of both CT and fluoroscopy and has an important role in image-guided interventions where real-time imaging is required. Historically, fluoroscopy was the main image guidance tool for interventional radiology procedures. T...

Voxel size

Voxel size is an important component of image quality. Voxel is the 3-D analog of a pixel. Voxel size is related to both the pixel size and slice thickness. Pixel size is dependent on both the field of view and the image matrix. The pixel size is equal to the field of view divided by the matrix...

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a three-dimensional nuclear medicine imaging technique combining the information gained from scintigraphy with that of computed tomography. This allows the distribution of the radionuclide to be displayed in a three-dimensional manner offerin...

Fringe field (MRI)

The fringe field is the peripheral magnetic field outside of the magnet core. It is important because it can cause interference with nearby electronic devices, such as pacemakers. Although the strength of the magnetic fields decreases with distance from the core of the magnet, the effect of the ...

Magnetic shielding

Magnetic shielding refers to the attempt to isolate or block the magnetic field of the MRI magnet. This can be done to prevent unwanted interference from the MRI magnet on nearby electronic devices. This is different from radiofrequency shielding, which is the attempt to prevent the unwanted i...

Gallium-68 DOTATATE

Gallium-68 DOTATATE (or Ga-68 DOTATATE) is a PET radiotracer that is useful for evaluating primary and metastatic well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors. It is a form of somatostatin-receptor (SSTR) functional imaging and most often combined with cross-sectional imaging in the form of PET-C...

Radiograph

A radiograph (or plain radiograph although the word 'plain' is strictly superfluous) is the radiologist's preferred term for the static image generated following the passage of x-rays through the patient. Non-imaging clinicians and the lay population generally use the term "x-ray" to refer to a ...

Gamma camera

Gamma cameras (also called scintillation cameras or Anger cameras) are the predominant nuclear medicine imaging machine currently in use. They permit the acquisition of planar images. They are also central to single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Design From the exterior to inter...

Radiofrequency shielding

Radiofrequency or RF shielding is a technique for creating electromagnetic (EM) isolation, which is critical during the acquisition of MR images. RF shielding serves to both prevent external EM interference from contaminating the target tissue signal, and to ensure that signals generated by MR i...

Faraday cage

A Faraday cage is a conductive enclosure used to shield the inner space from electromagnetic interference. In MR imaging, this type of structure provides radiofrequency shielding to the scanning room to minimize occurrence of interference-associated imaging artifact. Operation The cage is usua...

Thomas Edison

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) was a prolific inventor, considered by many to be the greatest inventor in American history. Edison holds over one thousand US patents; however, this article will focus on his work on fluoroscopy. Early life and career Thomas Alva Edison was born on 11 February 1847 ...

Off focus radiation

During x-ray generation, off-focus radiation refers to the emission of x-ray photons which originate outside of the anode focal spot. Essentially a form of scatter, photons produced in this manner may result in blurring and are of no use for diagnostic purposes. They are shielded as much as poss...

Multipath artifact

A multipath artefact is an ultrasound beam artefact in which the primary beam reflects off anatomy at an angle, resulting in a portion of the beam returning to the transducer, whilst another portion takes a longer duration as it reflects a second structure. This phenomenon results in a propagati...

Phased array coil

Phased array coils are an example of a receive-only radiofrequency coil system which receives the radiofrequency signal in MRI. It involves the collection of multiple surface coils into a larger array whose individual signals are combined to create one image. As signal coils detect signal based ...

Surface coil

Surface coils are a type of receive-only radiofrequency coil used in MRI to receive the radiofrequency signal (transmitted by the body coil). Surface coils are small and are shaped so that they can be placed near the part of anatomy being imaged. By their nature, surface coils have good signal-t...

Volume coils

Volume coils are the transmit and receive radiofrequency coils which are used to both transmit and receive the radiofrequency signal in MRI. Most MRI scanners have what is called a body coil – which is a volume coil built into the bore of the magnet which transmits the radiofrequency for most ex...

Radiofrequency receiver

Radiofrequency coils are the radiofrequency receivers (as well as sometimes the transmitters) of the electromagnetic signal used in MRI. Radiofrequency coils can be either receive-only, or both receivers and transmitters of the radiofrequency signal. The receiver coils detect the electromagnetic...

Radiofrequency transmitter

The radiofrequency (RF) transmitter is the generator of the radiofrequency current which is delivered to the transmitting coil. This creates a signal which is used to excite protons in the imaging field. Radiofrequency coils can be both transmitters and receivers of the radiofrequency signal or ...

Paul Lauterbur

Paul C Lauterbur (1929-2007) is remembered as one of the co-developers of MRI, for which he was co-awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 2003, with Peter Mansfield. Early life Paul Christian Lauterbur was born on 6 May 1929 in Sidney, Ohio. In 1951 he graduated with a bachelor...

Raymond V Damadian

Raymond V Damadian (1936-2022) was a pioneer in the field of MRI and inventor of one of the first MRI scanners. Early life Raymond Vahan Damadian was born on 16 March 1936 in Forest Hills, New York City and was a child prodigy. He studied violin at the Juilliard School of Music for eight years...

Radiological image artifact

Most artifacts in radiology refer to something seen on an image that are not present in reality but appear due to a quirk of the modality itself. Artifact is also used to describe findings that are due to things outside the patient that may obscure or distort the image, e.g. clothing, external c...

Slew rate

Slew rate refers to the speed at which a gradient can be turned on and off, and is defined as the maximum gradient strength of the gradient divided by the rise time. MR imaging is a product of magnetic field gradients which are created by magnetic gradient coils. The quality and performance of...

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