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Gastro-esophageal reflux grading

Gastro-oesophagal reflux grading is based on the vertical height that contrast-media reaches during fluoroscopy 1: grade I: reflux in the distal esophagus grade II: reflux up to or just above the carina grade III: reflux into cervical esophagus grade IV: reflux in the cervical esophagus with...

Tibia fibula series (pediatric)

The tibia fibula series for pediatrics consists of an anteroposterior and a lateral projection. Indications trauma with a suspected fracture inability to weight-bear suspected foreign body or bony lesions Projections anteroposterior view lateral view Gonadal shielding The use of gonada...

Endobronchial blocker device

An endobronchial blocker (also sometimes referred to a bronchial blocker) is a flexible tube with an inflatable balloon at its distal end. The device is purposefully inserted into the proximal aspect of a main bronchus to induce one lung ventilation. It may be placed via bronchoscopic guidance o...

Pediatric tibia fibula (lateral view)

The pediatric tibia fibula lateral view is part of a two-view series of the entire tibia, fibula, and both the knee and ankle joint. Indications The tibia fibula lateral view is performed for evaluation of the lower leg in pediatric patients. It allows for assessment of fractures in trauma or...

CT abdominal aorta (protocol)

CT abdominal aorta can be performed with or without contrast. The decision is based on the indication, clinical indications provided, and vascular access. Various scanning methods can be utilized depending on the scanner and patient demographics. NB: This article relates to general protocol des...

Pediatric tibia fibula (AP view)

The pediatric tibia fibula anteroposterior view is part of a two-view series of the entire tibia, fibula, and both the knee and ankle joint. Indications The tibia fibula AP view is performed for evaluation of the lower leg in pediatric patients. It allows for assessment of fractures in trauma...

Optical density

Optical density is a measure of the degree of radiographic film darkening, and is related to the proportion of incident x-ray photons that are transmitted through the tissue and strike the film 1. Usage Optical density is used to describe the level of film exposure in film-screen radiography. ...

Pediatric ankle (lateral view)

The lateral ankle view for pediatrics is one of three views to examine the distal tibia, distal fibula, proximal talus and proximal fifth metatarsal. Indications The lateral projection demonstrates the ankle joint orthogonal to the AP ankle view. It is useful in diagnosing fractures, joint sp...

Pico method

The Pico method is a CT-based calculation of glenoid bone loss in terms of an area (expressed in mm 2 or surface percentage). Before treatment, glenoid bone defect quantification with PICO method is required to select the best option (i.e. arthroscopy vs open surgery with bone transposition). M...

Scapulohumeral arthrodesis with a reconstruction plate

Shoulder arthrodesis with reconstruction plate aims to relieve pain and provide a stable site for elbow and hand function and also to allow for active and limited elevation of the shoulder with scapulothoracic motion. Plates are a useful method for glenohumeral salvage in cases without severe bo...

Short humeral stem arthroplasthy

A short humeral stem arthroplasty is less than 100 mm in length (standard-length > 100 mm) and comprises titanium with a proximal porous surface coating and metaphyseal press-fit fixation Advantages and disadvantages Advantages preserving bone stock eliminates damaging biological effects of ...

Pediatric ankle (mortise view)

The mortise ankle view for pediatrics is one of three views to examine the distal tibia, distal fibula, proximal talus and proximal fifth metatarsal. Depending on the child's age and the departmental protocol, the mortise view may or may not be performed. Terminology Mortise and mortice are va...

Pyrocarbon

Pyrocarbon or pyrolytic carbon is a synthetic material that, due to its tribological properties and biocompatibility, particularly with blood, was initially used in the medical field for mechanical heart valves. To make pyrocarbon-coated orthopedic implants, a graphite substrate is coated with ...

Glenoiditis

Glenoiditis or glenoid wear is the progressive erosion/wear of the native glenoid and is the most common complication of shoulder hemiarthroplasty. It may be caused by oversized humeral heads and insufficient joint release. Epidemiology Glenoiditis after shoulder hemiarthroplasty occurs in one...

Epiphyseal cortical irregularity

An epiphyseal cortical irregularity is an anatomical variant featuring a fragmented appearance of the distal femoral epiphysis in children. Epidemiology Epiphyseal cortical irregularity is a rare finding, accounting for 6.7% of all incidental findings on a knee radiograph series 1. It has a h...

Pediatric ankle (AP view)

The anteroposterior ankle view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the distal tibia, distal fibula, proximal talus and proximal fifth metatarsal. Indications This projection demonstrates the ankle joint in its natural anatomical position. It is useful in diagnosing fractur...

Centrifugal (inside-out) enhancement of liver hemangioma

Centrifugal (inside-out) enhancement of liver hemangioma are a type of atypical hepatic hemangioma, which due to its imaging features, often raises the concern of a malignant process rather than a benign one. Epidemiology Centrifugal (inside-out) enhancement of liver hemangiomas are a relativ...

Ankle series (pediatric)

The ankle series for pediatrics consists of an anteroposterior, mortise and a lateral projection. Depending on the child's age and the departmental protocol, the mortise view may or may not be performed. Indications trauma with a suspected fracture suspected dislocation inability to...

Attenuation imaging (ultrasound)

Attenuation imaging is an emerging method (c.2022) used for detection hepatic steatosis. It provides the function of quantifying and reducing the color code of liver decay factors, which may be due to changes in hepatic composition (such as increased fat content 1-3. The ATI value is defined as...

Pediatric foot (lateral view)

The lateral foot view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones of the foot. Indications This projection demonstrates the foot joint orthogonal to the natural anatomical position. It is useful in diagnosing fractures, soft tissue effu...

Mandible (axiolateral oblique view)

The axiolateral oblique mandible view allows for visualization of the mandibular body, mandibular ramus, condylar process and mentum. Indications This projection is useful in identifying structural changes and displaced fractures of the mandible in a trauma setting, and in neoplastic or inflam...

CT Orbits (protocol)

CT orbits (computed tomography of the orbits) involves the visualization of bony and soft tissue structures of the orbits. This examination is most commonly performed as a non-contrast scan or reconstructed from other examinations such as a CT head/face. Contrast-enhanced scans are utilized depe...

CT neck, chest, abdomen-pelvis (NCAP protocol)

The CT neck chest-abdomen-pelvis protocol aims to evaluate the neck, thoracic and abdominal structures using contrast in trauma imaging. The use of contrast facilitates the assessment of pathologies globally whilst minimizing dose by potentially disregarding a non-contrast scan. Note: This art...

Normal imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging divided by body region and system. brain head and neck spine chest breast gastrointestinal genitourinary hepatobiliary upper limb lower limb pediatrics

Pediatric foot (medial oblique view)

The medial oblique foot view for pediatrics is one of three views performed to examine the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones of the foot. Indications This projection is useful in diagnosing fractures; particularly 5th metatarsal fractures, soft tissue effusions, joint space abnormalities...

Pediatric foot (DP view)

The dorsoplantar foot view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones of the foot. Indications This projection demonstrates the foot joint in its natural anatomical position. It is useful in diagnosing fractures, soft tissue effusions,...

Foot series (pediatric)

The foot series for pediatrics consists of a dorsoplantar (DP), medial oblique and a lateral projection. Depending on the child's age and the departmental protocol, the medial oblique view may or may not be performed. Indications trauma with suspected fracture suspected dislocation ...

Lower limb radiography (pediatric)

Lower limb radiography involves plain film imaging of the pelvis, hip, knee and ankle bones in pediatric patients. Depending on the patients' age, the difficulty of the examination will vary, often requiring a specialist trained radiographer familiar with a variety of distraction and immobilizat...

Pediatric scaphoid (axial view)

The scaphoid axial view in pediatrics examines the scaphoid bone in its true anatomical position. Since minimizing radiation dose is essential in pediatric imaging, one posteroanterior angled view of the scaphoid is usually sufficient. The scaphoid bone begins ossification at age 5 years and com...

Pediatric clavicle (AP cephalic view)

The cephalad angulation clavicle view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the entirety of the clavicle and the sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints. This view is ideally performed erect, but supine may be necessary depending on the patient's level of distress and sever...

Pediatric clavicle (AP view)

The anteroposterior clavicle view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the entirety of the clavicle and the sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints. This view is ideally performed erect, but supine may be necessary depending on the patient's level of distress and severity ...

Harris ring

A Harris ring is a ring-like shadow observed at the base of the odontoid process on a lateral radiograph of the cervical spine. It is formed by the superimposition of the lateral masses of the C2 vertebra (axis) on its body. Disruption of the Harris ring is seen in type III, and less commonly, ...

Virtual grid

Virtual grid softwares are a relatively new innovation utilizing no physical grid at all. Instead, the original purpose of a grid is replicated by an algorithm 1 based on fundamental mathematics (i.e. Laplace transformation, wavelet transformation and Gaussian decomposition) which iteratively re...

Clavicle series (pediatrics)

The clavicle series for pediatrics is a two-view series containing an anteroposterior and a cranially angled axial radiograph. Depending on the patient's level of distress and severity of the injury, adapting the radiographic technique to suit a child sitting in bed or lying supine may be necess...

Pediatric shoulder (lateral view)

The lateral shoulder view in pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the shoulder joint, clavicle, scapula and proximal humerus. Indications This projection is an orthogonal view of the AP shoulder and is useful in pediatric imaging for identifying potential fractures or dislocation...

Foot (DP talus view)

The medial oblique axial talus view, also known as the Canale view, is a specialized projection of the talus bone, more specifically the talar neck. Indications This view is specifically indicated when assessing talar neck fracture and/or their follow-up. It is particularly useful to assess va...

Timed barium esophagogram

The timed barium esophagogram (TBO) is a simple physiologic assessment and objective method for assessing the esophageal emptying used in patients with suspected achalasia and to evaluate and follow up patients who have been treated with myotomy or pneumatic dilatation1,3. Technique Several te...

Nephrostogram

Nephrostogram, also known as antegrade pyelogram, is a special x-ray procedure that fluoroscopically evaluates the upper collecting system by introducing water-soluble contrast through the nephrostomy catheter. Indications Nephrostogram can be useful to determine tube position or assess resid...

Pediatric shoulder (AP view)

The anteroposterior shoulder view in pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the shoulder joint, clavicle, scapula and proximal humerus. Indications This projection demonstrates the shoulder joint in natural anatomical position and is used as an orthogonal view to the lateral should...

Broden's view

The Broden's view (or Broden view) is a specialized projection that accurately 1 examines the large posterior calcaneal facet and the subtalar joint 2. As technology advances, computed tomography (CT) has widely been used to better visualize and characterize fragment displacements and fracture ...

Long axial hindfoot alignment view

The long axial hindfoot alignment view is a specialized, weight-bearing radiographic view that examines the hindfoot alignment as part of a foot and ankle instability investigation. The long axial view requires no equipment and has higher inter-observer reliability compared to the standard hin...

Hindfoot alignment view

The hindfoot alignment view is a specialized, weight-bearing radiographic view that examines the hindfoot alignment as part of a foot and ankle instability investigation. The long axial view requires no equipment and has higher inter-observer reliability when measuring angular hindfoot alignme...

Foot (weight-bearing medial oblique view)

The weight-bearing medial oblique view of the foot is a specialized projection that places the foot under normal weight-bearing conditions. The projection is utilized to assess the foot under stress and better demonstrate structural and functional deformities. Indications This projection is ...

Ankle (weight-bearing mortise view)

The weight-bearing mortise (mortice is equally correct) view of the ankle is a specialized projection that places the joint under normal weight-bearing conditions. The projection is utilized to assess the joint under stress and better demonstrate structural and functional deformities. Termino...

Ankle (weight-bearing AP view)

The weight-bearing AP view of the ankle is a specialized projection that places the joint under normal weight-bearing conditions. The projection is utilized to assess the joint under stress and better demonstrate structural and functional deformities. Indications This projection is utilized ...

Ankle (weight-bearing lateral view)

The weight-bearing lateral view of the ankle is a specialized projection that places the joint under normal weight-bearing conditions. The projection is utilized to assess the joint under stress and better demonstrate structural and functional deformities. Indications This projection is util...

Bow-tie sign

"Bow-tie sign" refers to the appearance of rotated facets in unilateral facet joint dislocation. Facet joint displacement coupled with a rotational deformity gives a bow-like like appearance on a lateral view radiograph of spine 1.

CT renal mass (protocol)

The renal mass CT protocol is a multi-phasic contrast-enhanced examination for the assessment of renal masses. It is most often comprised of a non-contrast, nephrogenic phase and excretory phase. However, this article will cover the optional, corticomedullary phase too. NB: This article is inte...

Excretory phase

The excretory phase also known as the urographic phase is a postcontrast injection time range in which there is an optimal enhancement of the renal collecting systems. Technique The acquisition time depends on the intravenous device (central or peripheral), the concentration of the contrast me...

Contrast phases

Contrast phases are terms used to describe different stages of contrast enhancement to blood vessels, following the introduction of a pressure injected intravenous (IV) contrast agent such as iodine in CT. Typical phases (time from injection) include: early arterial phase 15-25 seco...

CT four-phase liver (protocol)

The four-phase liver CT protocol is a useful examination in the assessment of focal liver lesions, hypervascular liver metastasis and endocrine tumors. It is a triple-phase liver with an initial non-contrast component included before the intravenous contrast medium is given, often requested if ...

CT triple-phase liver (protocol)

The triple-phase liver CT protocol is a useful examination in the assessment of focal liver lesions, hypervascular liver metastases and endocrine tumors. It involves a dedicated late arterial phase, portal venous phase and delayed phase acquisition. Not to be confused with a four-phase which in...

Shoulder series (pediatric)

The shoulder series for pediatrics is a two-view series containing anteroposterior and lateral radiographs. Depending on the patient's level of distress and the severity of the injury, adapting the radiographic technique to suit a child sitting in bed or lying supine may be necessary. Indicati...

Portable radiography

Portable radiography (also known as mobile radiography) is frequently performed in hospitals when patients are too unwell to transport to the imaging department. However, most health facilities endeavor to perform "departmental films", as image quality tends to be inferior when performed with a ...

Pediatric thumb (AP/PA view)

The anteroposterior (AP) or posteroanterior (PA) view of the thumb in pediatrics is part of a two view series and is orthogonal to the lateral view. Often the decision to choose between the AP or PA thumb depends on what the child can manage and how agitated they are. An AP thumb is ideal as the...

Practical radiography: A Hand-Book of the Applications of the X-Rays

The book Practical radiography: A Hand-Book of the Applications of the X-Rays was the first ever textbook on x-rays anywhere in the world. It was written by H Snowden Ward and first published in May 1896 by Dawbarn & Ward. This is a mere six months after Wilhelm Roentgen's discovery of x-rays. ...

Pediatric humerus (lateral view)

The lateral humerus view for pediatrics is part of the humerus series and is usually taken in a standing position. However, it can also be obtained in a supine position. The projection demonstrates the humerus orthogonal to the AP view, allowing for adequate radiographic examination of the enti...

Pediatric thumb (oblique view)

The oblique thumb view in pediatrics is an additional projection for thumb imaging. Typically, this view is not performed unless specified by the referring doctor or radiologist. Indications For pediatrics, this oblique view is only indicated when specifically requested. This view may help to...

Nephrogenic phase

The nephrogenic phase, also known as the nephrographic phase or the renal parenchymal phase, is a postcontrast injection time range in which there is an optimal enhancement of the renal parenchyma including the medulla. Technique The acquisition time depends on the intravenous device (central ...

Portal venous phase

The portal venous phase, also known as the late portal phase or hepatic phase, is a contrast-enhanced CT or MRI series that has the following characteristics: liver parenchyma is at its peak enhancement with a density >110 HU (an increase of at least 50 HU from the unenhanced baseline)1,2 ...

Late arterial phase

The late arterial phase, also known as the corticomedullary phase or early venous portal phase, is a contrast-enhanced CT or MRI series, in which there is an optimal enhancement of structures that get their blood supply directly from the arterial system. The standard characteristics for this ph...

Early arterial phase

The early arterial phase, also known as the early systemic arterial phase, is a contrast-enhanced CT or MRI series, in which the contrast (e.g. iodinated or gadolinium) is still in the arteries and has not reached the organs and other soft tissues. Technique The acquisition time depends on the...

Pediatric humerus (AP view)

The anteroposterior humerus view for pediatrics is part of the humerus series and is usually taken in a standing position. However, it can also be obtained in a supine position. The projection demonstrates the humerus in its natural anatomical position allowing for adequate radiographic examina...

Humerus series (pediatric)

The humerus series for pediatrics is a set of anteroposterior and lateral radiographs taken to investigate elbow joint pathology, often in the context of trauma. As the elbow joint is also imaged in this series, being familiar with the order of elbow ossification is important in assessing the e...

Pediatric thumb (lateral view)

The lateral thumb view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the distal metacarpal, distal and proximal phalanges. Indications This projection is useful for diagnosing fractures and localizing foreign bodies in pediatric patients. It also presents as an orthogonal view of the ...

Pediatric finger (oblique view)

The oblique finger view for pediatrics is an additional view examining the distal metacarpal, distal, middle and proximal phalanges of the finger of interest. Indications To minimize radiation dose, only the PA and lateral finger views are typically performed for pediatrics. However, the obli...

Archives of the Roentgen Ray

The Archives of the Roentgen Ray was a general radiology journal published from 1897 to 1915. In 1915, it was renamed the Archives of Radiology and Electrotherapy. The Archives was a forerunner publication of the British Journal of Radiology (BJR). History In 1897, after a single year in print...

CT transcatheter aortic valve implantation planning (protocol)

The transcatheter aortic valve implantation or TAVI planning CT protocol is used to plan for transcatheter aortic valve implantation. CT allows for the assessment of the aortic root and valve annulus in order to select an appropriate valve size and location-specific to the patient. An aortic ang...

En face

En face (pronounced /ɒ̃ ˈfas/) is a term used in radiology, mainly in plain radiography, to refer to structures or pathology that are seen front on.

Cardiac gating (CT)

Cardiac gating or ECG gated angiography in CT is an acquisition technique that triggers a scan during a specific portion of the cardiac cycle. Often this technique is conveyed to obtain high-quality scans void of pulsation artefact. Technique Via the attachment of ECG leads, cardiac gating aim...

F-18 DOPA

F-18 DOPA (3,4-dihydroxy-6-[18F]fluoro-L-phenylalanine) is a PET radiotracer primarily used in the evaluation of neuropsychiatric diseases, movement disorders, and brain malignancies 1. Production L-DOPA is the nonproteinogenic amino acid precursor to dopamine with F-18 DOPA, in recent years,...

Cardiac CT (prospective high-pitch acquisition)

The prospective ECG-gated high-pitch dual-source CT cardiac angiogram is a high pitch helical acquisition of the heart that is able to capture a single phase of the cardiac cycle, a dual-source scanner is required to perform it. Although this is the CT cardiac angiogram with the lowest dose it a...

Renal transplant scintigraphy

Renal transplant scintigraphy is a non-invasive diagnostic modality, using radioactive isotopes, to assess renal transplant related complications. Renal scintigraphy images are acquired with a dynamic planar procedure using a radioactive isotope visualized on a gamma camera. The final result is ...

Pediatric finger (lateral view)

The lateral finger view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the distal metacarpal, distal, middle and proximal phalanges of the finger of interest. The patient position can vary depending on which finger is being imaged. Indications This projection is useful for diagnosing f...

Shoulder (Velpeau view)

The Velpeau view of the glenohumeral joint is a modified axial projection performed in the context of shoulder immobilization. Indications This projection is performed on patients with a shoulder sling (Velpeau bandage) in place, often in the context of post-operative or a post-reduction prese...

Shoulder (West Point view)

The West Point view of the glenohumeral joint is a modified axial projection of the glenohumeral joint in which the patient is prone. Indications The West Point view is a highly specific radiographic projection to assess the anteroinferior glenoid rim often in the context of recurrent instabi...

Nasal bones (lateral view)

The lateral nasal bones view is a nonangled lateral radiograph showcasing two small oblong bones situated side by side, together forming the nasal ridge. Indications This view is often primarily used in assessing various nasal bone fractures in the trauma setting. Depending on the department, ...

Contrast-enhanced CT during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Contrast-enhanced CT of patients undergoing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) presents unique technical and diagnostic challenges. Technical considerations There are a number of factors that need to be considered to ensure contrast-enhanced CT studies of ECMO patients are both succes...

Pediatric finger (PA view)

The posteroanterior finger view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the distal metacarpal, distal, middle and proximal phalanges of the finger of interest. Indications This projection demonstrates the metacarpal and interphalangeal joint spaces in their natural anatomic posi...

Cervical gravity line

The cervical gravity line is a measurement made on spinal / chiropractic imaging. It is usually drawn on an erect weight bearing radiograph as plumb line drawn downwards on a sagittal image from the dens. See also lumbar gravity line

Forearm (PA view)

The posteroanterior forearm view is one of two modified trauma projections in the forearm series, examining the radius and ulna. Indications This view is ideal for patients who are unable to move their arm as per the standard forearm positioning technique but require assessment of suspected r...

Forearm (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral forearm view is one of two modified trauma projections in the forearm series, examining the radius and ulna. Indications This view is ideal for patients who are unable to move their arm as per the standard forearm positioning technique but require assessment of sus...

Noise power spectrum

The noise power spectrum (NPS), also known as the power spectral density, of a signal, is the Fourier transform of the noise autocorrelation. It gives the intensity of noise as a function of spatial frequency. It is used in all the main radiological modalities, most commonly x-ray-based, i.e. ra...

CT brain perfusion (protocol)

CT perfusion of the brain is a dynamic, contrast-enhanced study utilized in patients with suspected stroke to differentiate salvageable ischemic brain tissue (i.e. penumbra) from damaged infarcted brain 1. NB: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The s...

Finger series (pediatric)

The finger series for pediatrics often consist of a posteroanterior and lateral view only in order to minimize radiation dose to the patient. Depending on the department and clinical indication, an additional oblique view may also be done. Indications trauma with suspected fracture suspected...

Thumb series (pediatric)

The thumb series for pediatrics often consist of a posteroanterior and lateral view only in order to minimize radiation dose to the patient. Depending on the department and clinical indication, an additional oblique view may also be done. Indications trauma with suspected fracture suspec...

Cine imaging (MRI)

Cine imaging, a.k.a. cine sequences or cine MRI, are a type of MRI sequence acquired to capture motion. Imaging technique Cine images are obtained by repeatedly imaging the area of interest for a certain time typically within a single slice, although 3D solutions already exist 3. For the hear...

Cardiac iron overload protocol (MRI)

The cardiac MRI iron overload protocol encompasses a set of different MRI sequences for the cardiac assessment in case of suspected iron overload cardiomyopathy. Note: This article aims to frame a general concept of a cardiac MRI protocol in the above setting. Protocol specifics will vary dep...

Femur (lateral view)

The lateral femur view is part of a standard series examining the femur in its entirety, including the hip and knee joint. Due to the limitations of the image detector, these projections are often performed in two images per view to ensure inclusion of both knee and hip joints. Indications Thi...

Abdomen (KUB view)

The kidneys, ureters, bladder (KUB) radiograph is optimized for assessment of the urogenital system, and should not be confused with the AP supine abdomen view. However, in cases where the patient may have both gastrointestinal and urogenital abnormalities, all pathologies will still be reported...

Neuroimaging (dual-energy CT)

Dual-energy CT has a number of clinical applications in neuroimaging particularly in the realm of material composition and virtual non-contrast imaging. Differentiation of hemorrhage from iodinated contrast Contrast staining of the brain parenchyma post iodinated contrast can lead to interpret...

Musculoskeletal imaging (dual-energy CT)

Dual-energy CT has a number of clinical applications in the assessment of the musculoskeletal system particularly in the realm of artefact reduction and material composition. Detection of bone marrow edema Similar to the concept of using virtual non-contrast imaging, virtual non-calcium images...

K-absorption edge

The K-absorption edge (K-edge) refers to the abrupt increase in the photoelectric absorption of x-ray photons observed at an energy level just beyond the binding energy of the k-shell electrons of the absorbing atom. K-shell binding energies are specific to each element. As the atomic number (Z...

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