Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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Spine radiography

Spine radiography is utilized in both trauma and general imaging. Spine radiography explores the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions. In more specialized departments, full-length spine radiography via projectional, CT, or slit-beam digital radiography is still frequently utilized in t...

Femur (AP view)

The anteroposterior femur view is part of a standard series examining the femur in its entirety, including the hip and knee joint. Due to the limitations of the image detector, these projections are often performed in two images per view to ensure inclusion of both knee and hip joints. Indicati...

Paranasal sinuses and facial bones (lateral view)

The lateral paranasal sinuses and facial bones view is a nonangled lateral radiograph showcasing the facial bones (i.e. mandible, maxilla, zygoma, nasal, and lacrimal bone) and paranasal sinuses. Indications This view is useful in assessing any inflammatory processes or fractures to the facial...

Pediatric wrist (lateral view)

The lateral wrist view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the carpal bones, distal radioulnar joint and metacarpals. Indications This projection is an orthogonal view of the PA wrist and is used to diagnose fractures and localize foreign bodies in pediatric patients. It a...

Gustav Bucky

Gustav Bucky (1880-1963) was a German-born, American radiologist who pioneered the development of anti-scatter grids in projectional radiography with his invention, the Bucky diaphragm. Early life Gustav Peter Bucky was born in the city of Leipzig, Germany on 3 September 1880 2,3,5. He had a k...

Skull (submentovertex view)

The skull submentovertex view is an angled inferosuperior radiograph of the base of skull. As this view involves radiographic positioning that is uncomfortable for the patient and with CT being more sensitive to bony detail, this view is rapidly becoming obsolete. Indications This view is usef...

Shunt series

The shunt series is a set of radiographic images performed to assess the location and integrity of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Indications Departmental protocols will vary but the overall goal is to image the shunt in its entirety to assess for mechanical causes of shunt failure 1,2. The sh...

Pediatric abdomen (invertogram view)

The invertogram view is an additional projection to demonstrate the pediatric abdomen and is often used exclusively in characterizing anal atresia. However, as this view may be less comfortable for the patient and result in a more technically challenging examination, a more ideal alternative tec...

Pediatric abdomen (prone cross-table lateral view)

The prone cross-table lateral view is an additional projection to demonstrate the pediatric abdomen and is a more ideal alternative to the invertogram, which may be less comfortable for the patient. This discomfort may result in a continuously crying baby, causing the puborectalis sling to contr...

Subcallosal line

The subcallosal line connects the inferior surface of the genu of the corpus callosum to the inferior surface of the splenium and is used to define an axial plane for imaging of the brain 1. The alternative AC-PC line is most commonly used, however, the subcallosal plane remains recommended fo...

Axial plane for imaging of the brain

A consistent axial plane for imaging of the brain needs to be chosen to allow for reproducible image acquisition and comparison. Unlike the sagittal plane, which is intrinsically defined by our inherent left-right plane of symmetry, axial and coronal planes need to be agreed upon and over the ye...

3D fast spin echo (MRI sequence)

3D fast spin-echo sequences are relatively recent MRI pulse sequences that are able to rapidly image relatively large volumes of tissue with high resolution whilst retaining many of the advantages of fast spin-echo sequences. They are able to create the same weightings as traditional 2D sequen...

Deep endometriosis (transvaginal ultrasound)

Transvaginal ultrasound (TV) for deep endometriosis is a specialized ultrasound technique used for the detection of deep endometriosis (DE). It differs from a traditional pelvic ultrasound in that the scan is extended beyond the uterus and ovaries to assess the anterior and posterior pelvic comp...

Pediatric forearm (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral forearm view for pediatrics is one of two modified trauma projections in the forearm series, examining the radius and ulna. Indications This view is ideal for patients who are unable to move their arm as per the standard forearm positioning technique but require as...

Pediatric forearm (PA view)

The posteroanterior forearm view for pediatrics is one of two modified trauma projections in the forearm series, examining the radius and ulna. Indications This view is ideal for patients who are unable to move their arm as per the standard forearm positioning technique but require assessment...

Pediatric forearm (lateral view)

The lateral forearm view for pediatrics is one of two standard projections in the forearm series to assess the radius and ulna. Indications This view allows for the assessment of suspected dislocations or fractures and localizing foreign bodies within the forearm. However, this view should no...

Pediatric forearm (AP view)

The anteroposterior forearm view for pediatrics is one of two standard projections in the forearm series to assess the radius and ulna. Indications This view demonstrates the elbow joint in its natural anatomical position allowing for assessment of suspected dislocations or fractures and local...

Pediatric wrist (oblique view)

The oblique wrist view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the carpal bones, distal radioulnar joint and metacarpals. Indications This projection is useful for diagnosing subtle wrist fractures and the location of the fracture; particularly in adults. However, the oblique...

Ghost image (orthopantomogram)

A ghost image is a commonly observed artifact in an orthopantomogram whereby a dense, often metallic object is located between the source of x-ray and the focal center, resulting in a duplicate 'ghost' image at the contralateral aspect of the image. Real image vs ghost image In panoramic imag...

Forearm series (pediatric)

The forearm series for pediatrics comprises an anteroposterior and lateral projection. These projections examine the entire radius and ulna including the distal and proximal articulations. Indications Forearm x-rays are indicated for a variety of settings including: trauma bony tenderne...

Pediatric immobilization

Pediatric immobilization relates to techniques used to keep children still for medical imaging examinations. Since radiation dose can affect children up to ten times more than adults 1, it is important to keep the radiation dose to a minimum. One method of achieving this is by avoiding repeat im...

Imaging in practice

Imaging in practice is home to all diagnostic and therapeutic investigations/interventions conducted in a typical radiology department. Each article below outlines clinical indications and practical information regarding each respective modality. general radiography (adult) general radiography...

Ultrasound in practice

Ultrasound is a commonly used imaging tool. This is a starting page for some general articles about ultrasound in practice in including common pathology and ultrasound techniques. See also ultrasound (imaging technology) ultrasound physics

General radiography

General radiography, also known as plain film radiography, is the specialty within medical imaging that utilizes projectional radiography to examine anatomy. It is often referred to as simply ‘x-ray’ within medical imaging departments. Due to the differences in pediatric projectional radiography...

Signal-to-noise ratio (CT)

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a generic term which, in radiology, is a measure of true signal (i.e. reflecting actual anatomy) to noise (e.g. random quantum mottle). Signal-to-noise ratio in CT roughly follows the same principles as those of plain radiographs. It is calculated by comparing the...

Signal-to-noise ratio (radiography)

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a generic term which, in radiology, is a measure of true signal (i.e. reflecting actual anatomy) to noise (e.g. random quantum mottle). A lower signal-to-noise ratio generally results in a grainy appearance to images. In radiography, the signal-to-noise ratio, an...

Pediatric elbow (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral elbow view for pediatrics is an alternative projection to the lateral view in the elbow series, examining the distal humerus, proximal radius and ulna. Indications This view demonstrates an orthogonal view of the AP elbow and is ideal for patients who are unable to...

Pediatric wrist (PA view)

The posteroanterior wrist view for pediatrics is one of three views in order to examine the carpal bones, distal radioulnar joint and metacarpals. Indications This projection demonstrates the wrist joint in its natural anatomical position allowing for evaluation of the distal radius, ulna and...

Pediatric elbow (horizontal beam AP view)

The horizontal beam anteroposterior elbow view for pediatrics is an alternative projection to the anteroposterior view in the elbow series, examining the distal humerus, proximal radius and ulna. Indications This view is ideal for patients who are unable to move their arm as per the standard ...

Pediatric elbow (AP view)

The anteroposterior elbow view for pediatrics is part of the two view elbow series, examining the distal humerus, proximal radius and ulna. Indications The projection demonstrates the elbow joint in its natural anatomical position allowing for adequate radiographic examination of the articula...

CT chest non-contrast (protocol)

The CT chest (non-contrast) protocol serves as an outline for the acquisition of a chest CT without the use of an intravenous contrast medium. Note: This article aims to frame a general concept of a CT protocol for the assessment of the chest. Protocol specifics will vary depending on CT scanne...

Pediatric elbow (lateral view)

The lateral elbow view for pediatrics is part of a two view elbow series, examining the distal humerus, proximal radius and ulna. Indications The projection is the orthogonal view of the AP elbow allowing for examination of the ulna-trochlear joint, coronoid process, and the olecranon process....

Elbow series (pediatric)

The elbow series for pediatrics is a set of radiographs taken to investigate elbow joint pathology, often in the context of trauma. It usually comprises an anteroposterior and lateral projection in order to minimize radiation dose to the patient. Depending on the department and clinical indicati...

Wrist series (pediatric)

The wrist series for pediatrics often consist of a posteroanterior and lateral view only in order to minimize radiation dose to the patient. Depending on departmental protocols, the oblique view may also be included as a standard view. Indications trauma with suspected fracture suspected dis...

Pediatric hand (lateral view)

The lateral hand view for pediatrics is an orthogonal view taken along with the PA view of the hand. The lateral view is used to primarily assess for foreign bodies and/or displacement of fractures/dislocations. Indications This view is useful in assessing suspected dislocations, fractures or ...

Pediatric hand (oblique view)

The oblique hand view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the phalanges, metacarpals, carpal bones and distal radioulnar joint. Indications This view is useful in assessing suspected dislocations or fractures, localizing foreign bodies or evaluating juvenile idiopathic/rheuma...

Pediatric hand (PA view)

The posteroanterior hand view for pediatrics is part of a two view series examining the phalanges, metacarpals, carpal bones and distal radioulnar joint. Indications This view is useful in assessing suspected dislocations or fractures, localizing foreign bodies or evaluating juvenile idiopath...

Hand series (pediatric)

The hand series for pediatrics often consist of a posteroanterior and lateral view only in order to minimize radiation dose to the patient. Depending on the department and clinical indication, an additional oblique view may also be done. Indications trauma with suspected fracture suspected di...

Upper limb radiography (pediatric)

Upper limb radiography involves plain film imaging of the shoulder, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals and carpal bones in pediatric patients. Depending on the patients' age, the difficulty of the examination will vary, often requiring a specialist trained radiographer familiar with a variety of...

Pediatric abdomen (supine cross-table lateral view)

The supine cross-table lateral view is an additional projection to demonstrate the pediatric abdomen. As radiation dose is an important consideration for pediatric imaging, the horizontal beam lateral view is not often performed; although this will vary based on the department. Indications Thi...

Quantum noise

Quantum noise, also called quantum mottle, is the main and the most significant source of noise in plain radiography. It is a random process due to fluctuations in the number of photons reaching the detector from point to point. This means that exposing the detector in the absence of an object w...

Phantom

A phantom or imaging phantom is a highly specialized object utilized in medical imaging for quality control, equipment calibration, dosimetry, and education. The use of the name is used interchangeably for each object despite their differences. There are two main types of phantom, anthropomorph...

Noise reduction

Noise reduction, also known as noise suppression or denoising, commonly refers to the various algorithmic techniques to reduce noise in digital images once they are created although a few sources use the term more broadly to imply anything that reduces noise. In digital image processing various ...

Ducroquet view of hip

The Ducroquet view is a radiographic projection of the femoral neck with flexed and abducted affected hip joint.1,4 The view can be used for examining cam-type femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Patient position Patient is supine; the affected hip joint is flexed on pelvis of 90° and abducted...

Hip (lateral view)

The lateral hip view is a radiographic projection assessing the relationship of the femoral head to the acetabulum. Indications This view assesses the hip joint for any potential fractures, dislocations, bone lesions or degenerative diseases (i.e. suspected osteoarthritis of the hip) in an ort...

Knee (lateral view)

The lateral knee view is an orthogonal view of the AP view of the knee. The projection requires the patient to 'roll' onto the side of their knee, hence it is not an appropriate projection in trauma, in all suspected traumatic injuries of the knee, the horizontal beam lateral method should be ut...

Chest photofluorography

Chest photofluorography, also known as mass miniature radiography, is a form of diagnostic imaging known as fluorography, applied to the thorax. Historically it was used for mass screening for pulmonary tuberculosis, but became obsolete in the mid-1970s. The imaging technique consisted of recor...

Skeletal survey (overview)

The skeletal survey is a radiographic series performed to survey the entire skeleton (axial skeleton, upper and lower limbs) for pathology or injury. Specific projections vary depending on the clinical indication and the institution's protocol. There are various clinical indications that may wa...

Saline flush during contrast medium administration

The saline flush during contrast medium administration otherwise known as a saline chaser is a secondary injection following the administration of contrast medium via a power injector. It is used in both CT and MRI. The primary purpose of the saline chaser is to ‘push’ the otherwise unused cont...

CT angiography of the chest (protocol)

CT angiography of the chest (CTA chest) is a cross-sectional diagnostic examination that can be performed ECG-gated or non-ECG gated. NB: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specifics will vary depending on CT hardware and software, radiologists...

Key figures in the history of radiology

In the history of radiology certain key figures stand out for their groundbreaking contributions to the establishment and development of radiology as a science, medical specialty and major advance in patient care. This list is by necessity arbitrary, although we (the editors) hope that the major...

CT pulmonary angiogram (protocol)

The computed tomography pulmonary angiogram (CTPA/CTPE) is a commonly performed diagnostic examination to exclude pulmonary emboli (PE). Each radiology department will have a slightly different method for achieving the same outcome, i.e. diagnostic density of the main pulmonary artery and its br...

Charge-coupled device detector

Charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors are used in digital radiography for the indirect conversion of x-ray photons into an electric charge (indirect because the x-ray photons are first converted into light via a scintillating screen). Structure A charge-coupled device can either be an area arr...

F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) embolism

F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) embolism is a condition which results in a uniform intense FDG-avid pulmonary focus without any underlying structural CT correlate with an unremarkable follow-up PET-CT scan 1. It is thought to occur as a result of clumping of FDG with blood when the blood is withdr...

Hair artifact

Hair artifact and hair-product artifacts are artifacts produced by the presence of the patient's hair, hair accessories (e.g. hair clip) and hair products (e.g. shampoo) within the field of view during acquisition of an image, which can affect all modalities to varying degrees. For example, in m...

EOS imaging systems

EOS® imaging system (also known as a slot-scanning device or slit-beam digital radiography system) is an x-ray technology that allows simultaneous acquisition of AP and lateral images of the entire body in a natural, erect position, and is also capable of performing three-dimensional reconstruct...

Pediatric abdomen (lateral decubitus view)

The lateral decubitus radiograph is an additional projection for assessing the pediatric abdomen. This view is ideal for displaying free air in the abdomen and/or if the patient is unable to lie supine 1. As radiation dose is an important consideration for pediatric imaging, the lateral decubitu...

Hip series

The hip series is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP) and lateral radiograph of the hip joint. The series is requested for a myriad of reasons from trauma to atraumatic hip pain. Indications Hip radiographs are performed for a variety of indications including 1-3: trauma hip pain abnormal...

Femur series

The femur series is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP), and lateral radiograph. The series is utilized to asses for abnormalities pertaining to the shaft of the femur (often requested when fringe abnormality is seen on hip or knee radiographs). It is not an effective series to assess for a nec...

Pediatric abdomen (PA erect view)

The PA erect abdominal radiograph is the standard view for assessing air-fluid levels and free air in the pediatric abdomen. This view may be taken alongside the AP supine and lateral decubitus views. As radiation protection is an essential consideration in pediatrics, some departmental protocol...

Pediatric abdomen (AP supine view)

The AP supine abdominal radiograph is a routine view when imaging the pediatric abdomen. This view may be taken alongside the PA erect and lateral decubitus views. As radiation protection is an essential consideration in pediatrics, some departmental protocols may only perform one view (either t...

Orthopantomography

The orthopantomogram (also known as an orthopantomograph, pantomogram, OPG or OPT) is a panoramic single image radiograph of the mandible, maxilla and teeth. It is often encountered in dental practice and occasionally in the emergency department; providing a convenient, inexpensive and rapid way...

Pineal and tectal plate protocol (MRI)

MRI protocol for the pineal and tectal plate assessment is a group of MRI sequences put together to best approach tumors involving this region. The pineal region is best imaged with MRI although CT, angiography, and ultrasound (in infants) also play a role. Please refer to the article pineal r...

Abdomen radiograph (pediatric)

The abdomen radiograph is a commonly requested examination in the pediatric patient. Children that present for abdominal x-rays are often very unwell, therefore specialized techniques and appropriate communication are essential for gaining the child's cooperation. Indications Performing abdom...

Foreign body inhalation series (pediatric)

The suspected foreign body inhalation series although not a primary port of investigation aims to detect and identify both foreign bodies or the secondary signs of inhaled foreign bodies 1. It involves a frontal chest radiograph in both the inspiration and expiratory phases and, in some cases, b...

Foreign body ingestion series (pediatric)

The suspected foreign body ingestion series is a set of radiographs utilized to detect and identify foreign bodies in the gastrointestinal tract. It involves an AP and lateral radiograph of the neck, chest, and abdomen ensuring adequate coverage of the entire gastrointestinal tract 1. Patient p...

Pediatric pelvis (AP view)

The AP pelvis view is a routine view for pediatric patients to examine the hip joints, proximal femora, iliac crests and pelvic ring. The complications of pelvic pathology in pediatrics can significantly affect the child's future, highlighting the importance of proper patient positioning 1. Ind...

Radionuclide cisternography

Radionuclide cisternography is a nuclear medicine imaging technique that uses intrathecal 111In-DTPA (diethyletriaminepentaacetic acid; pentetate) to visualize the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). There are a few indications 1: localization of CSF leak, such as in spontaneous intracranial hy...

Pelvis (hip surveillance)

Hip surveillance radiographs are part of a concerted effort to monitor and enable early detection of hip displacement in patients with cerebral palsy or neuromuscular disorders. The radiographs consist of a modified AP pelvis in which the patient's legs are in a neutral position, with the patell...

Transcranial Doppler sonography (ultrasound)

Transcranial Doppler (TCD), also known as transcranial color-coded duplex sonography (TCCS) is a sonographic study of intracranial structures and blood vessels, used most commonly to identify the hemodynamic state present in the vertebrobasilar circulation and the circle of Willis. Termin...

Pelvis radiograph (pediatric)

The radiography of the pelvis in the pediatric patient varies greatly from the adult examination; particularly as specialized techniques are often required to immobilize the patient. To avoid future mobility and pain complications, it is essential to treat fractures and correct developmental pat...

Abdominal imaging (dual-energy CT)

The role of dual energy CT is becoming increasingly more prevalent abdominal imaging due to the availability of scanners and increasing field of research. Acute bowel ischemia The addition of iodine maps and 40-keV monoenergetic images to standard single energy CT images was found to increase ...

Urinary system imaging (dual-energy CT)

Dual-energy CT has a number of clinical applications in the assessment of the urinary system particularly in the realm of artifact reduction and material composition Renal stone composition Renal calculi are composed of different substances such as uric acid, calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate...

Vascular imaging (dual-energy CT)

Dual-energy CT has a variety of clinical applications in vascular imaging, due to the utilization of material decomposition and the ability to reconstruct images at a variety of energy levels. Clinical applications High kVp CT scans have lower contrast than that of lower kVp due to the K-edge ...

Virtual non-contrast imaging

Virtual non-contrast imaging is an image post-processing technique used to create 'non-contrast' images of contrast-enhanced scans via the subtraction of iodine. It is an imaging technique unique to dual energy CT. Clinical applications Virtual non-contrast imaging has the potential to replace...

Optimal exposure in digital radiography

General radiography has a direct relationship between optimal exposure and a diagnostic image. Dynamic range Traditionally, general radiography utilized film technology with a limited dynamic range, in which under or overexposed films either develop ‘too dark’ or ‘too light' 1. Put simply; dyn...

Transesophageal echocardiography

A standard transesophageal echocardiography (TOE, or TEE in US English) is a type of echocardiography using an endoscopic transducer, which is advanced into the thoracic esophagus, offering generally superior visualization of the great vessels and posterior cardiac structures than the standard t...

Pediatric radiography

Pediatric radiography is a subset within general radiography specializing in the radiographic imaging of the pediatric population. The general principles of radiography remain the same. However, additional consideration needs to be taken into account when determining patient-specific exposure f...

Pediatric chest (AP erect view)

The anteroposterior erect chest view is ideal in younger cooperative pediatric patients (approximately 3-7 years old; this age range is only a guide). This chest view examines the lungs, bony thoracic cavity, mediastinum and great vessels. Indications The AP erect view is often chosen over th...

Pediatric chest (PA erect view)

The posteroanterior erect chest view is often performed in older pediatric patients; when the patient is able to cooperate with sitting or standing erect. This chest view examines the lungs, bony thoracic cavity, mediastinum and great vessels. Indications The PA erect view is often chosen over...

Pediatric chest (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam (cross-table) pediatric lateral chest view is a modified lateral projection often utilized in populations under the age of 6 months old due to the inability of that patient to independently hold up their head. Indications A lateral radiograph helps confirm the presence of a...

Pediatric chest (lateral view)

The pediatric lateral chest view may be performed as an adjunct to a frontal chest radiograph in cases where there is diagnostic uncertainty. Indications The lateral chest view examines the lungs, bony thoracic cavity, mediastinum, and great vessels. Lateral radiographs can be particularly use...

Pediatric chest (supine view)

In pediatric imaging, the anteroposterior supine chest x-ray is beneficial for imaging unconscious or uncooperative patients. Indications This view is preferred in infant and neonate imaging, whilst AP erect and PA erect views are ideal for children able to cooperate in sitting or standing 1. ...

Neonate chest (supine view)

The supine chest view of the neonatal patient is a common radiographic examination when examining preterm patients 1. Although not overall technically demanding, the radiographer should allocate time to ensure little to no repeats are required. Research surrounding the technical evaluation and ...

Chest radiograph (pediatric)

The chest radiograph is one of the most commonly requested radiographic examinations in the assessment of the pediatric patient. Depending on the patients' age, the difficulty of the examination will vary, often requiring a specialist trained radiographer familiar with a variety of distraction a...

Lipiodol

Lipiodol (also known as ethiodized oil) is an oil-based iodinated contrast medium that was historically used for myelography and hysterosalpingography 1. It was later superseded by newer, less hazardous, agents, and now is used primarily as a therapeutic agent. Guerbet is now the sole manufactur...

World Radiography Day

World Radiography Day (WRD) is an annual event held on 8 November to celebrate the anniversary of the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen, on 8 November 1895, and is organized by the International Society of Radiographers and Radiological Technologists (ISRRT) 1. World Radiography Day occur...

Radiograph

A radiograph (or plain radiograph although the word 'plain' is strictly superfluous) is the radiologist's preferred term for the static image generated following the passage of x-rays through the patient. Non-imaging clinicians and the lay population generally use the term "x-ray" to refer to a ...

Off focus radiation

During x-ray generation, off-focus radiation refers to the emission of x-ray photons which originate outside of the anode focal spot. Essentially a form of scatter, photons produced in this manner may result in blurring and are of no use for diagnostic purposes. They are shielded as much as poss...

Facial bones (reverse Waters)

The reverse Waters view is a modified alternative to the Waters view. However, skull radiographs are rapidly becoming obsolete in general, being replaced by much more sensitive CT scans. Indications trauma facial fractures acute sinusitis Patient position the patient is supine the mid-sag...

Cervical spine series

The cervical spine series is a set of radiographs taken to investigate the bony structures of the cervical spine, albeit commonly replaced by the CT, the cervical spine series is an essential trauma radiograph for all radiographers to understand. Indications Cervical spine radiographs are indi...

Elbow (acute flexion AP)

The elbow acute flexion AP is a modified elbow AP projection for patients who cannot straighten their arm for examination. It is comprised of two views demonstrating the distal humerus and proximal forearm structures. Indications This is a modified projection (chosen by the radiographer when ...

Elbow (internal oblique view)

The elbow internal oblique view is a specialized projection, utilized to demonstrate both the coronoid process in profile and the olecranon process sitting within the olecranon fossa of the humerus. The affected limb is pronated. Indications The medial oblique view is not a standard projection...

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