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Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

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Acromioclavicular joint (AP view)

The acromioclavicular AP view is a single projection assessing the patency of the acromioclavicular joint. See also, acromioclavicular joint injuries. Indications The AP view of the acromioclavicular joint is often requested when the referrer either knows about or highly suspects an acromiocl...

Shoulder (modified trauma axial view)

The modified trauma axial view is a supplementary projection that replaces the ‘Y view’ of the two-view shoulder series. It is an orthogonal view of the AP projection of the glenohumeral joint and is often performed in the context of trauma. Indications The modified trauma axial view is used t...

Wrist (carpal bridge view)

The carpal bridge view an additional view of the three view series of the wrist and carpal bones. It is a specialized projection that involves keeping the patient's wrist in flexion. Indications The carpal bridge view is requested to assess the dorsal aspect of the scaphoid, lunate and the tri...

Beam hardening

Beam hardening is the phenomenon that occurs when an x-ray beam comprised of polychromatic energies passes through an object, resulting in selective attenuation of lower energy photons. The effect is conceptually similar to a high-pass filter, in that only higher energy photons are left to contr...

Motion artifact

Motion artifact is a patient-based artifact that occurs with voluntary or involuntary patient movement during image acquisition. Misregistration artifacts, which appear as blurring, streaking, or shading, are caused by patient movement during a CT scan. Blurring also occurs with patient movemen...

Iodinated contrast media

Iodinated contrast media are contrast agents that contain iodine atoms used for x-ray-based imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT). They can also used in fluoroscopy, angiography and venography, and even occasionally, plain radiography. Although the intravenous route of administrati...

Elbow (Coyle's view)

The Coyle's view or trauma oblique view of the elbow is an axial projection that is performed in addition to the standard elbow series when there is suspicion of a radial head or capitellum fracture. Indications The Coyle's view is performed for any patient with a suspected radial head fractur...

Cervical spine (swimmer's lateral view)

Cervical spine swimmer's lateral view is a modified lateral projection of the cervical spine to visualize the C7/T1 junction. As technology advances, computed tomography has replaced this projection, yet there remain many institutions (especially in rural areas) where computed tomography is no...

Toes (oblique view)

The toes medial oblique view is part of the toe series examining the phalanges and metatarsals of the foot. Indications This view shows the region of interest with 45° medial obliquity. It serves as another angle to evaluate any joint abnormalities such as gout (especially in the first digit) ...

Knee (AP weight-bearing view)

The knee AP weight-bearing view is a specialized projection to assess the knee joint, distal femur, proximal tibia and fibula and the patella. Indications Knee AP weight-bearing views will often be used in the context of orthopedic appointments to assess the alignment and degree of arthropath...

Flat panel CT

Flat panel computed tomography (FPCT), otherwise, know as flat panel volume tomography are multidetector computed tomography scanners that utilize a large area detector rather than a fixed array of detectors 1,3. Flat panels have a significantly wider z-axis area coverage that can cover larger ...

Shoulder (lateral scapula view)

The lateral scapula shoulder or Y view is part of the standard shoulder series. Indications Orthogonal to the AP shoulder (note: as is an axillary view); this view is a pertinent projection to assess suspected dislocations, scapula fractures, and degenerative changes. It is also useful in seei...

Toes (AP view)

Toes AP view is part of a three view toe series and includes the phalanges and the toe(s) of interest and the distal half of the associated metatarsals. Indications This view evaluates any joint abnormalities such as gout and osteoarthritis and is also useful in determining fractures or disloc...

Toes series

The toes series is comprised of an AP, AP oblique, and a lateral projection. The series is often utilized in trauma situations. It examines the entirety of the proximal middle and distal phalanges of the foot. Indications Toe radiographs are performed for a variety of indications including 1:...

Knee (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral view (cross-table lateral) is an orthogonal view of the AP view of the knee requiring little to no patient movement and is hence the lateral projection of choice for acute knee injuries. Indications This view is the ideal projection to assess for lipohemarthrosis as...

Wrist (clenched fist view)

The clenched fist view is an additional projection used to evaluate suspected widening of the scapholunate interval, often performed bilaterally it is a functional view that requires the patient to clench both hands. Patient position patient is seated in front of the table both hands a...

Scaphoid (oblique view)

The oblique scaphoid view is part of a four view series of the scaphoid, wrist and surrounding carpal bones. The positioning is similar if not identical to the oblique wrist. Indications Although you would not request this view in isolation, this is a great projection to assess the tubercle o...

Scaphoid (PA axial view)

The scaphoid posteroanterior axial view is part of a four view series of the scaphoid, wrist and surrounding carpal bones. This view is a complementary projection to the PA view. Indications This view aims to show the scaphoid in its true anatomical appearance without any superimposition or fo...

CT abdomen (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists CT abdomen is an increasingly common investigation that is used to help make diagnoses of a broad range of pathologies. A CT abdomen in its simplest form is a CT from diaphragm to symphysis pubis performed 60 seconds after ...

Dual-energy CT (clinical applications)

Dual-energy CT or multispectral CT is becoming increasingly more common in clinical practice due to the rapid rise in computer technology and expanding literature exhibiting vast advantages over conventional single energy CT. Clinical applications The clinical practice, adaptation and techniq...

V/Q scan

V/Q (ventilation/perfusion) scan is a scintigraphic examination of the lung that evaluates pulmonary vasculature perfusion and segmental bronchoalveolar tree ventilation. Indications diagnosis of suspected pulmonary embolism monitor pulmonary function following lung transplant pro...

Clavicle (AP cephalic view)

The clavicle AP cephalic angulation view is a standard projection part of the clavicle series and is often used in conjunction with the AP clavicle view. Indication This projection straightens out the clavicle and projects most of it above the scapula and second and third rib. It can help to d...

Clavicle (AP view)

The clavicle AP view is a standard projection part of the clavicle series. The projection demonstrates the shoulder in its natural anatomical position allowing for adequate radiographic examination of the entire clavicle. Indications The AP clavicle is often indicated in patients with suspecte...

Clavicle series

The radiographic series of the clavicle is utilized in emergency departments to assess the clavicle, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joint. Indications Clavicle x-rays are indicated for a variety of settings including: trauma bony tenderness suspected fracture congenital...

Cerebral angiography

Cerebral angiography is an interventional procedure for the diagnosis and/or treatment of intracranial pathology. Indications Cerebral digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is indicated in a variety of settings including: diagnosis and treatment of: aneurysms acute ischemic stroke vascular...

Shoulder (AP view)

The shoulder AP view is a standard projection that makes up the two view shoulder series. The projection demonstrates the shoulder in its natural anatomical position allowing for adequate radiographic examination of the entire clavicle and scapula, as well as the glenohumeral, acromioclavicular ...

Wrist (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral wrist view is a modified lateral projection when performing the three view series of the wrist and carpal bones in trauma Indications This is not a requested view, rather an adaptation to a tricky situation. Most often this projection is conducted on patients who ar...

Effect of isolated pronation-supination (lateral wrist radiograph)

The wrist series is comprised of a posteroanterior, oblique, and lateral projection. The series examines the carpal bones (namely, the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate). It also examines the radiocarpal joint along with the distal radius and ulna....

Chest (supine view)

The supine anteroposterior chest view is the alternative to the PA view and the AP erect view when the patient is generally too unwell to tolerate standing, leaving the bed, or sitting 1. The supine view is of lesser quality than both the AP erect and the PA view for many reasons, yet sometimes ...

Pelvis (Judet view)

The oblique internal and external pelvis views otherwise known as the Judet view are additional projections to the pelvic series when there is suspicion of an acetabular fracture. Indications The Judet views are comprised of two projections. First the iliac oblique for assessment of the ilioi...

Pelvis (inlet view)

The anteroposterior inlet view is part of a pelvic series examining the iliac crest, sacrum, proximal femur, pubis, ischium and the great pelvic ring. Indications It is of considerable importance in the management of severely injured patients presenting to emergency departments 1. This particu...

Pelvis (outlet view)

The anteroposterior outlet view is a specialized view part of a pelvic series examining the iliac crest, sacrum, proximal femur, pubis, ischium and the great pelvic ring. Indications The outlet view is of considerable importance in the management of severely injured patients presenting to emer...

Hip (horizontal beam lateral view)

The horizontal beam lateral hip radiograph or shoot through hip is in the purest terms the orthogonal view of the neck of the femur to the AP projection 1. Indications The projection is used to assess the neck of the femur in profile during the investigation of a suspected neck of femur fractu...

Chest (AP erect view)

The erect anteroposterior chest view is performed with the x-ray tube anteriorly, firing photons through the patient to form the image on a detector positioned behind the patient. A detector can be positioned behind a relatively immobile patient. Indications The erect anteroposterior chest vi...

Shoulder series

The shoulder series is fundamentally composed of two orthogonal views of the glenohumeral joint including the entire scapula. The extension of the shoulder series depends on the radiography department protocols and the clinical indications for imaging. Indications Shoulder radiographs are perf...

Ankle (horizontal beam lateral view)

The ankle horizontal beam lateral view is a modified lateral view part of a three view ankle series. Indications This projection is used to assess the distal tibia and fibula, talus, navicular, cuboid, the base of the 5th metatarsal and calcaneus. It is a highly adaptable projection that can b...

Chest (lateral view)

The lateral chest view examines the lungs, bony thoracic cavity, mediastinum, and great vessels. Indications This orthogonal view to a frontal chest radiograph may be performed as an adjunct in cases where there is diagnostic uncertainty. The lateral chest view can be particularly useful in as...

Neonatal abdominal radiograph (supine view)

AP supine radiograph for neonates is a mobile examination performed on the neonatal unit. It can be taken as a standalone projection or as part of a series including a left lateral decubitus x-ray in cases of suspected perforation. Patient position the patient is supine, lying on their bac...

Pelvis (AP view)

The AP pelvis view is part of a pelvic series examining the iliac crest, sacrum, proximal femur, pubis, ischium and the great pelvic ring. Indications This view is of considerable importance in the management of severely injured patients presenting to emergency departments 1. It helps to asse...

Pelvis series

The pelvis series is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP) with additional projections based on indications and pathology. The series is used most in emergency departments during the evaluation of multi-trauma patients due to the complex anatomy the AP projection covers. The pelvis series examin...

Chest (PA view)

The posteroanterior (PA) chest view examines the lungs, bony thoracic cavity, mediastinum and great vessels. Indications The chest x-ray is the most common radiological investigation in the emergency department 1. The PA view is frequently used to aid in diagnosing a range of acute and chronic...

Calcaneus (axial view)

The calcaneus axial view is part of the two view calcaneus series assessing the talocalcaneal joint and plantar aspects of the calcaneus. As technology advances, computed tomography (CT) has widely been used 1 to better visualize and characterize calcaneum fragment displacements and fracture li...

Calcaneus (lateral view)

The calcaneus lateral view is part of the two view calcaneus series; this projection is used to assess the calcaneus, talocrural, talonavicular and talocalcaneal joint. As technology advances, computed tomography (CT) has widely been used 1 to better visualize and characterize calcaneum fragmen...

Calcaneus series

The calcaneus series is comprised of a lateral and axial (plantodorsal) projection. The calcaneus is the most commonly fractured tarsal bone accounting for ~60% of all tarsal fractures 1. This series provides a two view investigation of the calcaneus alongside the talar articulations and talocal...

Foot (lateral view)

The lateral foot projection is part of the three view series examining the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones that make up the foot. This view additionally examines the talocrural joint. Indications This view is useful in the assessment for joint abnormalities, determining the degree of d...

Foot (medial oblique view)

The medial oblique projection is part of the three view series examining the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones that make up the foot. Indications This view demonstrates the location and extent of fractures in the foot and joint space abnormalities. It is also used in the determination o...

Femoral torsion analysis

Femoral torsion analysis is used to assess the alignment of a femur post-surgery. If one side has been operated on it can be compared to the non-operated side. Method Superimpose axial images of ref: femoral heads the neck of femurs femoral condyles Draw a line from the center of the femor...

Tardus parvus

Tardus parvus refers to a pattern of Doppler ultrasound spectral waveform resulting from arterial stenosis. The phenomenon is observed downstream to the site of stenosis, and is due to reduced magnitude of blood flow through the narrowed vessel during ventricular systole 7. This characteristic ...

Cardiac imaging planes

Cardiac imaging planes are standard orientations for displaying the heart on MRI, CT, SPECT, and PET, similar to those used in echocardiography. The planes are defined in reference to the long axis of the left ventricle, which is the line that connects the ventricular apex to the center of the m...

Xenon-127

Xenon-127 is a radiopharmaceutical principally used when a performing VQ scan. It is not a widely used alternative to xenon-133 with the main advantage being a higher proton energy allowing for post perfusion scanning. photon energy: 203 KeV physical half life: 36.3 days

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA or DXA) is a technique used to aid in the diagnosis of osteopenia and osteoporosis. Radiographic features Values are calculated for the lumbar vertebrae and femur preferentially, and if one of those sites is not suitable (e.g. artifact, patient mobility)...

Baumann angle

Baumann angle, also known as the humeral-capitellar angle, is used for the evaluation of the displacement of pediatric supracondylar humeral fractures. It is measured on a frontal radiograph, with elbow in extension. This angle is formed by the humeral axis and a straight line through the epi...

Chest (expiratory view)

An expiratory chest radiograph can be taken in either a PA or AP projection, and can also be taken with a mobile/portable unit. Chest radiographs may inadvertently be acquired in expiration (instead of inspiration), and this will affect interpretation with the cardiac silhouette appearing enla...

Facial bones (Waters view)

The occipitomental (OM) 4 or Waters view or parietoacanthial projection 2 is an angled PA radiograph of the skull, with the patient gazing slightly upwards. Indications It can be used to assess for facial fractures, as well as for acute sinusitis. In general, radiographs of the skull and facia...

Knee (AP view)

The knee anteroposterior view is a standard projection to assess the knee joint, distal femur, proximal tibia and fibula and the patella. Indications This view demonstrates the distal femur and proximal tibia/fibula in their natural anatomical position allowing for assessment of suspected disl...

Knee series

The knee series is a set of radiographs taken to investigate knee joint pathology, often in the context of trauma. It usually comprises an AP and lateral projection, although other non-standard, modified projections can be used for specific indications. See also knee radiograph (an approach). ...

Foot (dorsoplantar view)

The dorsoplantar view is part of a three view series examining the phalanges, metatarsals and tarsal bones that make up the foot. Indications This view demonstrates the location and extent of fractures in the foot, joint space abnormalities, soft tissue effusions and is the frontal view for t...

Tibia fibula (lateral view)

The tibia fibula lateral view is part of a two view series of the entire tibia, fibula, and both the knee and ankle joint. Indications The tibia fibula lateral view is the orthogonal projection to the AP view and is performed for evaluation of fractures or dislocations including their directi...

Tibia fibula (AP view)

The tibia fibula anteroposterior view is part of a two view series of the entire tibia, fibula, and both the knee and ankle joint. Indications The tibia fibula AP view is performed for evaluation of the lower leg in patients who have suffered trauma or are suspected to have a foreign body or ...

Tibia and fibula series

The tibia/fibula is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP), and lateral radiograph. The series is often used in emergency departments to evaluate the entirety of the tibia and fibula after trauma. Indications The tibia/fibula radiographs are performed for a variety of indications including: ...

Ankle (lateral view)

The ankle lateral view is part of a three view ankle series; this projection is used to assess the distal tibia and fibula, talus, navicular, cuboid, the base of the 5th metatarsal and calcaneus. Indications This projection aids in evaluating fractures, dislocations and joint effusions surroun...

Ankle (mortise view)

The ankle AP mortise (mortice is equally correct) view is part of a three view series of the distal tibia, distal fibula, talus and proximal 5th metatarsal. Terminology Mortise and mortice are variant spellings and equally valid 4. Indications This projection is the most pertinent for assess...

Ankle (AP view)

The ankle AP view is part of a three view series, and visualizes the distal tibia, distal fibula, proximal talus and proximal fifth metatarsal. Indications The true anteroposterior view of the ankle is often performed in the setting of ankle trauma and suspected ankle fractures in addition to ...

Wrist (oblique view)

The oblique wrist view is part of a three view series of the wrist and carpal bones. It is not generally performed in follow-up studies unless specifically requested. Indications The oblique wrist radiograph is requested for myriad reasons including but not limited to trauma, suspected infecti...

Thumb (oblique view)

The thumb oblique view is a part of the thumb series and is particularly useful in cases with traumatic indications. Indications This projection will demonstrate the thumb in its natural 'AP' position, it is the thumb radiograph you would observe on an AP hand radiograph. It is a great project...

Finger (oblique view)

The finger oblique view is a standard projection for radiographic assessment of the fingers. Indications The oblique view s not required for follow-up studies, or 'query foreign body' unless specifically requested. It is, however, a very useful projection in the acute setting and should be in...

Sternum (lateral view)

The lateral sternum view a radiographic investigation of the entire length of the sternum in profile. The view is used to query fractures or infection 1. Indication This view is invariably undertaken for one of two reasons, to assess for a fracture or metastasis. It may also rarely be perform...

Humerus (lateral view)

The lateral view of the humerus is part of the humerus series and is usually taken in a standing position. However, it can also be taken in the supine position in the acute, trauma setting. The projection demonstrates the humerus in the lateral position allowing for adequate radiographic examin...

Humerus radiographic series

The humerus series is comprised of an AP and lateral radiograph, utilized primarily in trauma, but also in the evaluation of bone tumors. Indications trauma: fracture neck of humerus/shaft of humerus fractures bone tumor detection Projections The two standard projections allow two views of ...

Lower limb radiography

Lower limb radiography is the radiological investigation of the pelvis, hip joint, femur, knee joint, tibia, fibula, ankle joint, tarsal bones of the foot and metatarsals. It is often utilized in the context of trauma to rule out fractures and dislocations.

Acute abdominal series

The acute abdominal series is a common set of abdominal radiographs obtained to evaluate bowel gas. Indications The acute series is used for a variety of indications including: determine the amount of bowel gas, with possible bowel distention assess air-fluid levels query pneumoper...

Abdominal radiography

Abdominal radiography can be useful in many settings. Before the advent of CT, it was a primary means of investigating gastrointestinal pathology and often allowed indirect evaluation of other abdominal viscera. Indications Although abdominal radiography has lower sensitivity and specificity t...

Abdomen (lateral decubitus view)

The lateral decubitus abdominal radiograph is used to identify free intraperitoneal gas (pneumoperitoneum). It can be performed when the patient is unable to be transferred to, or other imaging modalities (e.g. CT) are not available. The most useful position for detecting free intraperitoneal ai...

Abdomen (PA erect view)

The PA erect abdominal radiograph is often obtained in conjunction with the AP supine abdominal view in the acute abdominal series of radiographs. The erect abdominal radiograph has virtually disappeared from clinical practice in the United Kingdom, with studies dating back to the 1980s affirmi...

Abdomen (AP supine view)

The AP supine abdominal radiograph can be performed as a standalone projection or as part of an acute abdominal series, depending on the clinical question posed, local protocol and the availability of other imaging modalities. Indications This view is useful in assessing abdominal pathologies,...

Normal brain imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the brain and surrounding structures, divided by modality and protocol. CT CT (routine) example 1: C- axial, coronal, sagittal example 2: C- axial, coronal, sagittal & axial bone example 3: C- axial, C+ axial, coronal, sagittal example 4: C-...

Normal breast imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the breast and surrounding structures, divided by region and modality. Breast Mammography MLO and CC (standard mammographic views) labeled example unlabelled example (50 year old) example 2 (35 year old) example 3 (den...

Normal hepatobiliary imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the liver and biliary tree and surrounding structures, divided by region and modality. Liver Plain radiographs liver silhouette: example Ultrasound liver ultrasound example 1 with shear wave elastography liver Doppler ultrasound: example ne...

Normal gastrointestinal tract imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the gastrointestinal tract and surrounding structures, divided by modality. Plain radiograph abdominal film example 1 example 2: erect and supine example 3: pediatric example 4: pediatric example 5: young adult male Barium studies barium ...

Sternoclavicular joint series

The sternoclavicular radiographic series is a used to evaluate sternoclavicular joint and the proximal clavicle. Imaging of the sternoclavicular joint has since been replaced by computed tomography. Indications Sternoclavicular joint radiographs are performed for a variety of indications inclu...

Normal lower limb imaging examples

This page lists examples of normal imaging of the lower limb, divided by region and modality. Pelvic girdle plain radiograph pelvis: example 1: frontal example 2: frontal (young adult) example 3: pediatric example 4: pediatric (9 months, 11 months, and older child) example 5: trauma supi...

Acromioclavicular joint series

The acromioclavicular (AC) joint radiographic series is used to evaluate the acromioclavicular joint and the distal clavicle. Indications AC radiographs are performed for a variety of indications including: shoulder trauma direct blows to the shoulder region following a fall onto ...

Normal upper limb imaging examples

This page lists examples of normal imaging of the upper limb, divided by region and modality. Shoulder girdle plain radiograph sternoclavicular joint: example clavicle: example, example 2, example 3 bilateral clavicle: example 1 acromioclavicular joint example 1 example 2 shoulder exam...

Normal chest imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the chest and surrounding structures, divided by modality. Plain radiographs Adult examples chest radiograph PA adult male example 1 example 2: with inverted windows example 3 PA adult female example 1 example 2 example 3: with labels ...

Normal genitourinary tract imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the genitourinary tract and surrounding structures, divided by modality. Kidneys Plain radiograph KUB: example 1 abdominal x-ray: example 1 Intravenous Urogram (IVU) and Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP) IVU: example 1, example 2 Ultrasound rena...

Normal head and neck imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the head and neck and surrounding structures, divided by region and modality. Neck For normal spinal imaging, please see: normal spinal imaging Plain radiographs soft tissue: example 1, example 2, example 3 Ultrasound example 1 CT non-cont...

Normal spine imaging examples

This article lists examples of normal imaging of the spine and surrounding structures, divided by region and modality. Cervical spine plain radiograph example 1: AP, lat, obliques only example 2: PEG view example 3: flexion and extension views only example 4: pediatric (12 years old) exam...

Brain tumor protocol (MRI)

MRI protocol for brain tumor assessment is a group of MRI sequences put together to best approach CNS tumors in general. Note: This article is intended to outline some general principles of protocol design. The specifics will vary depending on MRI hardware and software, radiologist's and referr...

Colonic transit study

The colonic transit study is an older technique to estimate colonic transit time. Terminology Various names are used for this type of study including shapes study, colon motility test, Sitz marker study and Transit-Pelletsmethod, and variations thereof. Indications In constipation, it can ...

Foot series

The foot series is comprised of a dorsoplantar (DP), medial oblique, and a lateral projection. The series is often utilized in emergency departments after trauma or sports related injuries 2,4. See: approach to foot series. Indications Foot radiographs are performed for a variety of indicatio...

Ankle series

The ankle series is comprised of an anteroposterior (AP), mortise and lateral radiograph. The series is often used in emergency departments to evaluate the distal tibia, distal fibula, and the talus; forming the ankle joint. See approach to an ankle series. Terminology Mortise and mortice are...

Cervical spine (Fuchs view)

The closed mouth odontoid AP view (Fuchs view) is a non-angled AP radiograph of C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis). Indications This view focuses primarily on the odontoid process, and is useful in visualizing odontoid and Jefferson fractures. The standard Fuchs view (Figure 1 and 3) should not be used...

Skull (Towne view)

The Towne view is an angled anteroposterior radiograph of the skull and visualizes the petrous part of the pyramids, the dorsum sellae and the posterior clinoid processes, which are visible in the shadow of the foramen magnum. Indications This projection is used to evaluate for medial and late...

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