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12,346 results found

Anterior spinal artery

The anterior spinal artery supplies the anterior portion of the spinal cord and arises from the vertebral artery in the region of the medulla oblongata. The two vertebral arteries (one of which is usually bigger than the other) anastamose in the midline to form a single anterior spinal artery at...

Anterior spinal commissure

The anterior spinal commissure connects the left and right sides of the spinal cord anteriorly. It is located between the posterior-most extent of the anterior median fissure anteriorly and the ventral grey matter commissure posteriorly 1. It is composed of anterior and lateral spinothalamic t...

Anterior spinothalamic tract

The anterior spinothalamic tract, also known as the ventral spinothalamic fasciculus, is an ascending pathway located anteriorly within the spinal cord, primarily responsible for transmitting coarse touch and pressure. The lateral spinothalamic tract (discussed separately), in contrast, primar...

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine, also known as hyperflexion sprain, is a ligamentous injury of the cervical spine. Clinical presentation Patients present with severe, focal neck pain. There may be neurological symptoms due to spinal cord injury. Pathology Anterior subluxation of t...

Anterior superior alveolar canal

The anterior superior alveolar canal courses through the anterior wall of the maxillary sinus, and contains the anterior superior alveolar nerve, artery and vein. Usually, it shares a common channel with the infraorbital canal but when seen separately should not be confused for a fracture.

Anterior superior alveolar nerve

The anterior superior alveolar nerve, also known as the anterior superior dental nerve, is the third branch of the infra-orbital nerve, from the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve. It is the largest of the superior alveolar nerves and contributes to the superior dental plexus. Gross an...

Anterior superior iliac spine

The anterior superior iliac spine is an important bony surface landmark and is the prominence is the most anterior part of the ilium. It can be palpated at the lateral end of the inguinal fold. Attachments include the inguinal ligament, sartorius and depending on which resource you read, the ten...

Anterior superior iliac spine avulsion injury

Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) avulsion injuries typically occur in athletes during forceful muscular contraction. ASIS is the site of attachment for sartorius and tensor fascia latae muscles. Pathology ASIS avulsion, like other pelvic avulsion injuries, is a stable fracture. Treatment...

Anterior talofibular ligament

The anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) is part of the lateral collateral ligament complex of the ankle. Its role is to stabilize the talus. It is also the weakest of the lateral collateral ankle ligaments. Gross anatomy The ATFL is an intracapsular flat two-banded ligament that arises from ...

Anterior talofibular ligament injury

Anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) injury is the most common of the ligament injuries that can occur as part of the lateral ligament complex injuries 2. The injuries can comprise either soft tissue tears, avulsion fractures or both. Pathology ATFL injuries typically occur with an inversion i...

Anterior temporal artery

The anterior temporal artery is usually a branch of the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) that curves out of the Sylvian fissure and runs over the temporal lobe to supply the anterior third of the superior, middle and inferior temporal gyri. Variant anatomy The temporopolar arter...

Anterior temporal lobe perivascular spaces

Anterior temporal lobe perivascular spaces are recently recognised special variants of tumefactive perivascular spaces, which can mimic cystic tumors with surrounding edema. Epidemiology A predilection for women has been reported 1. Age range is wide, from 24 to 86 years old reported 1. Clini...

Anterior tibial artery

The anterior tibial artery is the main arterial supply of the anterior compartment of the leg. Gross anatomy The anterior tibial artery arises from the popliteal artery in the popliteal fossa and continues distally as the dorsalis pedis artery. Course The popliteal artery usually divides at...

Anterior tibial translocation sign

The anterior tibial translocation sign or anterior drawer sign (a.k.a. anterior translation of tibia) is seen in cases of complete rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament, and refers to anterior translocation (anterior tibial subluxation) of the tibia relative to the femur of >7 mm 1.

Anterior tibial vein

The anterior tibial veins, continuations of the venae comitantes of the dorsalis pedis artery, leave the anterior compartment between the tibia and fibula and pass through the proximal end of the interosseous membrane. They unite with the posterior tibial veins to form the popliteal vein at the ...

Anterior triangle

The anterior triangle forms the anterior compartment of the neck and is separated from the posterior triangle by the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The triangles of the neck are surgically focused, first described from early dissection-based anatomical studies which predated cross-sectional anatomi...

Anterior tympanic artery

The anterior tympanic artery is the second named branch of the first part of the maxillary artery. The vessel passes through the petrotympanic fissure to supply the lining of the middle ear and accompanies the chorda tympani in its course.

Anterior ulnar recurrent artery

The anterior ulnar recurrent artery is a recurrent branch of the proximal ulnar artery that ascends in the anterior medial aspect of the elbow, anterior to the medial epicondyle of the humerus to anastomose with the inferior ulnar collateral artery (from the brachial artery) and contribute to th...

Anterior vertebral body beaking

Anterior vertebral body beaking occurs in a number of conditions and may eminate from the central portion or the lower third of the vertebral body. Middle third Morquio syndrome 1 (middle for Morquio) Lower third Hurler syndrome 2 achondroplasia 3 pseudoachondroplasia 4 cretinism 5 Down ...

Anterolateral ligament of the knee

The anterolateral ligament of the knee (ALL) is a ligament that is thought to aid with rotational stability of the knee joint. Some think that its presence (or reconstruction) may result in better outcomes from ACL stabilisation surgery 2. The ligament has also been implied in Segond fractures 3...

Anterolisthesis

The term anterolisthesis refers to anterior displacement (forward slip) of a vertebral body relative to the one below. Its severity can be graded by the Meyerding classification and its etiology classified according to the Wiltse type.

Anterosuperior mediastinal mass (mnemonic)

The common causes of an anterosuperior mediastinal mass can be remembered by using the mnemonic: 5 Ts Mnemonic T: thymus T: thyroid T: thoracic aorta T: terrible lymphoma T: teratoma and germ cell tumors - see mediastinal germ cell tumors Testicular cancer metastasis can represent a sixt...

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea can be broadly divided into two groups: Clostridium difficile colitis non-specific diarrhea The former is a life-threatening condition, requiring prompt diagnosis and treatment whereas the later is milder and self-limiting. Both result from changes in the bowe...

Antibiotic beads

Implanted antibiotic beads are a form of microbiological treatment inserted during orthopedic procedures to aid with the treatment of chronic infection. They are also used as a local treatment for osteomyelitis. The beads are radiopaque, thus lending themselves to visualization on all imaging m...

Anti-GQ1b IgG antibody syndrome

Anti-GQ1b IgG antibody syndrome refers to a number of conditions which share autoantibodies to the ganglioside complex GQ1b, and have overlapping clinical spectrums. The conditions believed to represent various clinical manifestations of a common immunological disorder include 1: acute ophth...

Anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis

Anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis represents a group of inflammatory demyelinating disorders united by the presence of IgG antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) that overlap with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and...

Antimuscarinics in MRI protocols

Antimuscarinics decrease bowel movements in pelvic MRI, and may be used for better image acquisition. Usually, 20mg of hyoscine butylbromide IM/IV is administered prior to examination. Contraindications Myasthenia gravis Pyloric stenosis Benign prostatic hyperplasia Paralytic ileus Additi...

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody associated vasculitides

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitides refer to a group of heterogeneous autoimmune diseases characterized by necrotizing vasculitides and positive anti-neutrophil antibody titers. They are reactive to either proteinase-3 (PR3-ANCA) - cANCA or myeloperoxidase (MPO-ANCA) - p...

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor encephalitis

Anti N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor encephalitis is an autoimmune encephalitis with antibodies against the NMDA receptors. It is sometimes considered a form of autoimmune limbic encephalitis. It usually affects young patients particularly young females, in about 60% of whom ovarian ter...

Antiphospholipid syndrome

Antiphospholipid syndrome is a systemic autoimmune disorder. It is usually defined as the clinical complex of vascular occlusion and ischemic events occurring in patients who have circulating antiphospholipid antibodies. Clinical presentation Antiphospholipid syndrome is characterized by venou...

Antiphospholipid syndrome (pulmonary manifestations)

Pulmonary involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome is one of the most frequent arterial complications of antiphospholipid syndrome. Pathology It is essentially related to pulmonary arterial microthrombosis and may cause a wide spectrum of conditions, which include 3-5: pulmonary thromboembol...

Anti-synthetase syndrome

Anti-synthetase syndrome (ASS) is a systemic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease that is characterized by inflammatory myositis, polyarthritis associated with interstitial lung disease (ILD) and anti-synthetase autoantibodies. Pathology ASS can result from autoantibodies to eight of the aminoacy...

Antithrombin III deficiency

Antithrombin (AT) III deficiency (now simply called antithrombin deficiency) refers to a congenital lack of the endogenous anticoagulant antithrombin. Epidemiology Antithrombin deficiency is considered the least common of the three main anticoagulant deficiencies (the other two being protein C...

Antley-Bixler syndrome

Antley-Bixler syndrome (ABS), also known as trapezoidocephaly-synostosis syndrome, is a rare autosomal dominant or recessive condition characterized by craniosynostosis and extra-cranial synostoses. Mid-facial hypoplasia is also common. Epidemiology It is a very rare condition with only 50 cas...

Antoine Henri Becquerel

Antoine H Becquerel (1852-1908) was a French scientist renowned for his work and subsequent discovery into the evidence of radioactivity for which he was awarded a Nobel prize. Early life Antoine Henri Becquerel was born on the 15th December 1852 in Paris, France to a family of nobility and ac...

Antonio Egas Moniz

Antonio Egas Moniz (1874-1955) 1 was a pioneering Portuguese neurologist that is notable in radiology history for his development of cerebral angiography in 1927. He is also known as the developer of prefrontal leucotomy (now better known as a lobotomy) for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1...

Antopol-Goldman lesion

Antopol-Goldman lesions are very rare presentations of subepithelial hemorrhage in the renal pelvis, presenting as discrete mass-like hematomas. Pathology The cause of these lesions is uncertain, although long-term anticoagulation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) overuse, trauma, ...

Antral follicle count

Antral follicle count (AFC) or basal antral follicle count is a test performed to check a female individual's ovarian reserve. Principle A female is born with a lifetime supply of eggs and as she enters puberty these eggs develop. During and after puberty these follicles develop and are relea...

Antral nipple sign

The antral nipple sign refers to redundant pyloric mucosa protruding into the gastric antrum and is seen in pyloric stenosis. See also cervix sign of pyloric stenosis target sign of pyloric stenosis shoulder sign of pyloric stenosis

Antral pad sign

The antral pad sign is a feature seen on a spot radiograph of the upper gastrointestinal tract obtained with orally-administered contrast material. It refers to the extrinsic impression or indentation on the posteroinferior aspect of the antrum. The impression is generally arcuate and smooth, an...

Antrochoanal polyp

Antrochoanal polyps (ACP) are solitary sinonasal polyps that arise within the maxillary sinus. They pass to the nasopharynx through the sinus ostium and posterior nasal cavity, enlarging the latter two. Similar, less common, polyps can arise in the sphenoid sinus extending into the nasopharynx:...

Antrolith

An antrolith is a calcified mass within the maxillary sinus. The origin of the nidus of calcification may be extrinsic (foreign body in sinus) or intrinsic (stagnant mucus, fungal ball). Most antroliths are small and asympotomatic. Larger ones may present as sinusitis with symptoms like pain a...

AO classification of proximal humeral fractures

The AO classification of proximal humeral fractures, along with the Neer classification, is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying proximal humeral fractures. The AO classification divides proximal humeral fractures into three groups, A, B and C, each with subgroups, and place...

AO classification of sacral injuries

The AO classification of sacral injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying sacral injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. The AO sacral classification is broken into three subsections that follow a hierarchical structure similar to the AO cla...

AO classification of subaxial injuries

The AO classification of subaxial injuries aims to simplify and universalise the classification of subaxial cervical spine fractures and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. The AO subaxial cervical spine injury classification involves four criteria based on morphology, facet in...

AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries

The AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying spinal injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability 3. The AOSpine thoracolumbar classification system consists of only three classes of thoracolumbar injuries. Unlik...

AO classification of upper cervical injuries

The AO classification of upper cervical injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying upper cervical injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. Injuries are based on location specific patterns and divided into: type 1: occipital condyle and occipi...

Aorta

The aorta, the great artery, is the largest artery of the human body and carries oxygenated blood ejected from the left ventricle to the systemic circulation. It is divided into: thoracic aorta ascending aorta aortic arch descending aorta abdominal aorta It has branches from each section a...

Aortic aneurysm

The broad term aortic aneurysm is usually reserved for pathology discussion. More specific anatomic and radiologic discussion is based on the location of the aneurysm: thoracic aortic aneurysm abdominal aortic aneurysm

Aortic annulus

The aortic annulus is a fibrous ring at the aortic orifice to the front and right of the atrioventricular aortic valve and is considered the transition point between the left ventricle and aortic root. The annulus is part of the fibrous skeleton of the heart. It is at the level of the sinus of V...

Aortic arch

The aortic arch represents the direct continuation of the ascending aorta and represents a key area for a review of normal variant anatomy and a wide range of pathological processes that range from congenital anomalies to traumatic injury. Summary origin: continuation of the ascending aorta at...

Aortic arch branches (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the major branches of the aortic arch is: ABC'S Mnemonic A: arch of aorta B: brachiocephalic trunk C: left common carotid artery S: left subclavian artery

Aortic dissection

Aortic dissection is the most common form of the acute aortic syndromes and a type of arterial dissection. It occurs when blood enters the medial layer of the aortic wall through a tear or penetrating ulcer in the intima and tracks along the media, forming a second blood-filled channel within th...

Aortic dissection detection risk score

The aortic dissection detection risk score (ADD-RS) is a clinical decision tool that aids in grading the pretest probability of an acute aortic dissection. Scores range from 0-3, where 0 is classed as low risk, 1 is moderate risk and 2-3 is high risk 1. Criteria The three domains in which pati...

Aortic dissection detection risk score plus d-dimer

The use of the aortic dissection detection risk score plus d-dimer is a proposed standardized strategy of safely ruling out the diagnosis of an acute aortic syndrome. Similar to how the pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria (PERC) negates the need for further workup of a pulmonary embolism. Int...

Aortic hiatus

The aortic hiatus is one of the three major apertures through the diaphragm and lies at the level of T12. Strictly speaking, it is not a real aperture in the diaphragm, but an osseoaponeurotic opening between it and the vertebral column. The hiatus is situated slightly to the left of the midli...

Aortic intramural hematoma

Aortic intramural hematoma (IMH) is an atypical form of aortic dissection due to hemorrhage into the wall from the vasa vasorum without an intimal tear. It is part of the acute aortic syndrome spectrum. Epidemiology Typically aortic intramural hematomas are seen in older hypertensive patients....

Aortic isthmus

The aortic isthmus is the part of the aorta just distal to the origin of the left subclavian artery at the site of the ductus arteriosus. This portion of the aorta is partly constricted in the fetus because of the lack of flow within the aortic sac and ascending aorta. It marks the partial sepa...

Aortic knob

The aortic knob or knuckle refers to the frontal chest x-ray appearance of the distal aortic arch as it curves posterolaterally to continue as the descending thoracic aorta. It appears as a laterally-projecting bulge, as the medial aspect of the aorta cannot be seen separate from the mediastinum...

Aortic nipple

An aortic nipple is seen in about 10% of PA chest x-rays on the lateral surface of the aortic arch/aortic knob. It represents the left superior intercostal vein. When prominent, superior vena cava obstruction should be considered as the left superior intercostal vein serves as a collateral path...

Aortic pseudoaneurysm

Aortic pseudoaneurysms typically occur as a result of trauma, a subset of traumatic aortic injury. They can be acute or chronic. Pathology Aortic pseudoaneurysms are contained ruptures of the aorta in which the majority of the aortic wall has been breached, and luminal blood is held in only by...

Aortic pseudoaneurysm versus ductus diverticulum

Differentiation of aortic pseudoaneurysm from ductus diverticulum is critical, particularly in the trauma setting. A traumatic aortic pseudoaneurysm is a surgical emergency whereas a ductus diverticulum is a normal anatomy variant. The following are differentiating features: Aortic pseudoaneur...

Aortic-pulmonary stripe

The aortic-pulmonary stripe is an uncommon feature of frontal chest radiographs and was first described by Keats in 1972 1. It is formed by the interface of the pleural surface of the anterior segment of the left upper lobe contacting the mediastinal fat that is anterolateral to the pulmonary t...

Aortic root

The aortic root is the first part of the aorta and connects the heart to the systemic circulation. Gross anatomy The aortic root lies between the junction of the aortic valve and ascending aorta. It has several subparts 1: three aortic valve leaflets and leaflet attachments three aortic sin...

Aortic root abscess

An aortic root abscess is a serious complication of infective endocarditis. Radiographic features General Abscesses tend to be saccular in shape, range from 1 to 3 cm in diameter. Depending on sinus of origin, extended beneath the main and right pulmonary arteries or into the interventricular...

Aortic spindle

Aortic spindles are an anatomical variant of the proximal descending thoracic aorta. It occurs just distal to the aortic isthmus and has a circumferential smooth bulging appearance. Differential diagnosis ductus diverticulum: not circumferential aortic pseudoaneurysm thoracic aortic aneurysm

Aortic transection

An aortic transection (also known as a traumatic aortic rupture) is a type of traumatic aortic injury. It is considered the second most common cause of death associated with motor vehicle accidents. Pathology It occurs from a near-complete tear through "all the layers" of the aorta due to tra...

Aortic valve

The aortic valve is one of the four cardiac valves. It is the semilunar valve that allows blood to exit the left ventricle. It opens during systole and closes during diastole. The valve has left, right and posterior cusps, the bases of which attach around the valve orifice to a fibrous ring or a...

Aortic valve regurgitation

Aortic valve regurgitation, also known as aortic valve insufficiency or aortic valve incompetence, is a valvulopathy that describes leaking of the aortic valve during diastole that causes blood to flow in the reverse direction from the aorta and into the left ventricle. Epidemiology Aortic reg...

Aortic valve stenosis

Aortic valve stenosis is the most common valvulopathy and describes narrowing of the opening of the aortic valve between the aorta and the left ventricle. Epidemiology Aortic stenosis is the most common valvulopathy, present in up to one-quarter of all patients with chronic valvular heart dise...

Aortitis

Aortitis refers to a general descriptor that involves a broad category of infectious and non-infectious conditions where there is inflammation (i.e. vasculitis) of the aortic wall. Clinical presentation The presentation is non-specific with fever, pain and weight loss. Pathology Etiology ...

Aortocaval fistula

Aortocaval fistula is a rare and devastating complication of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), wherein the aneurysm erodes into the inferior vena cava. Epidemiology Spontaneous rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm into the adjacent inferior vena cava occurs in <1% of all aneurysms and in ~3...

Aortoenteric fistula

Aortoenteric fistula are pathologic communications between the aorta (or aortoiliac tree) and the gastrointestinal tract, and represent an uncommon cause of catastrophic gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Aortic fistulas may be considered primary (associated with complicated abdominal aortic aneurysm...

Aortoiliac occlusive disease

Aortoiliac occlusive disease refers to complete occlusion of the aorta distal to the renal arteries. Terminology When the clinical triad of impotence, pelvis and thigh claudication, and absence of the femoral pulses are present, it may also be called Leriche syndrome, which usually affects you...

Aorto-left renal vein fistula

Aorto-left renal vein fistula is an extremely rare complication of abdominal aortic aneurysm rupture. The initial clinical presentation is often non-specific, however, characteristic imaging findings, if recognised early, can lead to prompt diagnosis and assist in surgical planning. Epidemiolo...

Aortopulmonary septal defect

Aortopulmonary septal defect (APSD), also known as aortopulmonary window (APW), is a congenital anomaly where there is an abnormal communication between the proximal aorta and the pulmonary trunk in the presence of separate aortic and pulmonary valves. Terminology APSD should not be confused w...

Aortopulmonary window (radiograph)

The aortopulmonary (aortic-pulmonary or AP) window (also known as APW, but see 'Terminology' below) is a radiological mediastinal space seen on frontal chest radiographs. Terminology The term "aortopulmonary window" (also called an aortopulmonary septal defect) can also refer to a rare form of...

Aortosternal venous compression

Aortosternal venous compression refers to compression of the brachiocephalic vein as a result of its position between the sternum and the aorta(or regional arteries). It can occur with normal as well as variant anatomy (aberrant right subclavian artery 1). Clinical presentation It is asymptoma...

Aorto-ventricular tunnel

Aorto-ventricular tunnel (AVT) is an extremely rare form of congenital heart disease, representing an anomalous extracardiac communication between the ascending aorta and the left or right ventricles. Terminology In most cases the anomalous communication is between the aorta and the left ventr...

AO Spine classification systems

The AO Spine classification systems are a group of anatomically based of imaging and clinical combined injury classification systems of spinal trauma designed to be a simple and reproducible method of describing injury patterns. At the time of writing (Oct 2018), the 4 published classification ...

APACHE score

The Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) score is a illness severity score commonly used in critical care medicine to predict mortality upon admission to an intensive care unit. Criteria It involves two sections - one assessing the severity of the acute illness and another ...

Apert syndrome

Apert syndrome (also known as type I acrocephalosyndactyly) is a syndrome that is predominantly characterized by skull and limb malformations. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is 1 case per 65-80,000 pregnancies. Risk factors increased paternal age has been proposed 6 Associations CNS ...

Apgar score

Apgar score was originally described by Virginia Apgar (American anaesthesiologist, 1909-1974) in 1952. Helpfully, her surname is also a useful mnemonic for remembering the 5 factors: each is graded as 0, 1 or 2 with a total possible score of 10. The lower the score the worse the prognosis. Th...

Aphakia

Aphakia (less commonly aphacia) is the absence of the lens from the ocular globe. Pathology Etiology surgical removal of a cataract (commonest cause) trauma congenital Treatment and prognosis Surgical insertion of an intraocular lens implant, in which case the aphakic appearance is calle...

Aphthoid ulceration

Aphthoid ulcers are shallow ulcers of the gastrointestinal mucosa. Pathology Etiology infective inflammatory conditions Yersinia enterocolitis amoebic enterocolitis cytomegalovirus enterocolitis noninfective inflammatory conditions Crohn disease idiopathic granulomatous gastritis vascu...

Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (AHCM), also known as Yamaguchi syndrome, is a rare form of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy which usually involves the apex of the left ventricle, rarely involves the right ventricular apex, or involves both apices. Epidemiology Historically, this condition was t...

Apical ligament

The apical ligament is a small ligament that joins the apex (tip) of the dens of C2 to the anterior margin (basion) of the foramen magnum. It is the weak, fibrous remnant of the notochord and does not contribute significant stability. The more posterior alar and cruciate ligaments are stronger ...

Apical lung disease (mnemonic)

A handy mnemonic to remember common apical lung diseases is: SET CARP or CARPETS Mnemonic S: sarcoidosis E: eosinophilic pneumonia T: tuberculosis C: cystic fibrosis A: ankylosing spondylitis R: radiation pneumonitis P: pneumoconiosis

Apical pleural cap

Apical pleural cap refers to a curved density at the lung apex seen on chest radiograph. Epidemiology The frequency of apical pleural thickening increases with age 3. Pathology It arises from a number of causes: pleural thickening/scarring idiopathic: chronic ischemic etiology is favoured ...

Apical zone

The apical zone is one of the four chest radiograph zones and an important location for missed diagnoses when reporting a frontal chest radiograph and makes up one of the "check areas". It is sometimes thought of as a subdivision of the upper zone. Radiographic features Plain radiograph port...

Aplastic anemia

Aplastic anemia is a rare hematopoietic stem-cell disorder. The condition results in pancytopenia and hypocellular bone marrow. Most cases are acquired, however, there are unusual inherited forms. Pathology Aplastic anemia manifests as a marked reduction in the number of pluripotent hematopoie...

Apocrine carcinoma of the breast

Apocrine carcinoma of the breast is a rare variant of breast cancer. The diagnosis is mainly pathological as it is difficult to differentiate from other forms of breast cancer on imaging. Epidemiology It accounts for about 4% of all cases. It is seen most often in females in the age group of 5...

Apocrine metaplasia of the breast

Apocrine metaplasia of the breast is a benign breast condition and is sometimes considered part of or associated with fibrocystic change. It is a common finding in the female breast, particularly after the age of 25, and many regard it as a normal component of the breast. Epidemiology Seen mos...

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