Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
341 results found
Article
20° oblique projection
20° oblique projection is a troubleshooting projection used in mammography, especially in young women and in follow-up patients.
Technique
The C-arm is turned approximately 20° for a superomedial-inferolateral oblique. With the patient's feet pointing towards the unit and her torso turned slig...
Article
5-tier ACR system of radiologic breast findings
The 5-tier ACR system was a previously used system for classification of radiologic breast findings, proposed by the American College of Radiology (ACR). It is no longer in widespread use, having been gradually superseded by the 6-tier BI-RADS classification system first published in 1992. Inter...
Article
Aberrations in the normal development and involution of the breast
Aberrations in the Normal Development and Involution of the breast (ANDI) is an all-encompassing term that is used to describe a wide spectrum of the benign breast diseases. As the name suggests, it is based on the theory that most of the encountered benign breast disorders are essentially minor...
Article
Abscess
Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1:
a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue
peripheral halo of viable neutrophils
surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood vessel...
Article
Accessory breast tissue
Accessory breast tissue is a relatively common congenital condition in which abnormal accessory breast tissue is seen in addition to the presence of normal breast tissue. This normal variant can present as a mass anywhere along the course of the embryologic mammary streak (axilla to the inguinal...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma
Adenoid cystic carcinomas are a rare histological subtype of adenocarcinoma.
Pathology
Adenoid cystic carcinomas are generally considered low grade 4. The tumours have a notable tendency for perineural spread.
Location
They have a wide distribution and mainly occur in relation to the airways...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the breast
Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) of the breast is a rare subtype of breast cancer.
Epidemiology
They account for only 0.1-0.4% of all breast cancers.
Pathology
The tumour demonstrates a strikingly characteristic microscopic pattern similar to that of adenoid cystic carcinoma of the salivary gl...
Article
Adenomatous breast lesions
Adenomatous breast lesions are benign tumours which grow from glandular parenchyma. The breast is a conglomeration of various glandular tissues, hence they can be of several types.
tubular adenoma
lactating adenoma
apocrine adenoma of breast
pleomorphic adenoma of breast
ductal adenoma
F...
Article
Adenosis of the breast
Adenosis of the breast is a benign lobulocentric proliferative process in which lobules are enlarged and increased in number in addition to an increased number of glands within each lobule.
Pathologically subclassified into three main subtypes which include:
sclerosing adenosis of the breast
...
Article
Albert Salomon
Albert Salomon (1883-1976), a German surgeon, was the first physician to study x-rays of breast tissue.
Early life
To be completed.
Development of mammography
Salomon worked at the Royal Surgical University Clinic in Berlin and from about 1913 x-rayed 3000 breast specimens obtained from the...
Article
Altered breast density between two mammograms
Mammographic screening detects early breast cancers and thereby reduces potential mortality. However, its sensitivity is inversely related to breast density 1.
Altered density between two mammograms can arise in a number of situations:
Affecting both breasts:
interval commencement/cessation ...
Article
Amastia
Amastia is a rare congenital condition characterised by the absence of breast tissue, nipple and areola. This may occur unilaterally or bilaterally.
Pathology
During embryological development, breasts first appear as ectoderm ridges during the 6th week of gestation. This ridge grows thicker an...
Article
Amazia
Amazia is a rare congenital condition defined by the absence of glandular parenchyma in either one or both of the breasts and a normal nipple and areola complex.
Epidemiology
This is a very rare entity and the true prevalence is not known. Although there are strict definition criteria, the di...
Article
Amorphous calcifications (breast)
Amorphous calcifications, previously known as indistinct calcifications, are a morphological descriptor for breast calcifications that are small and/or hazy such that no clearly defined shape/form can be ascribed.
Pathology
Many benign and malignant conditions may be seen in association with ...
Article
Anatomy curriculum
The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists.
General anatomy
Neuroanatomy
Head and neck anatomy
Thoracic anatomy
Abdominal and pelvic anatomy
Spinal anat...
Article
Angiosarcoma of breast
Breast angiosarcomas are a rare vascular breast malignancy.
Epidemiology
As primary tumours of the breast, they account for ~0.04% 2 of all breast cancers and tend to occur in younger women, in their 3rd to 4th decades.
Secondary angiosarcoma, related to prior therapy of breast cancer, has an...
Article
Apocrine carcinoma of the breast
Apocrine carcinoma of the breast is a rare variant of breast cancer. The diagnosis is mainly pathological as it is difficult to differentiate from other forms of breast cancer on imaging.
Epidemiology
It accounts for about 4% of all cases. It is seen most often in females in the age group of 5...
Article
Apocrine metaplasia of the breast
Apocrine metaplasia of the breast is a benign breast condition and is sometimes considered part of or associated with fibrocystic change. It is a common finding in the female breast, particularly after the age of 25, and many regard it as a normal component of the breast.
Epidemiology
Seen mos...
Article
Artifacts that mimic breast calcification
Artifacts that mimic breast calcification can arise from a number of external sources of radiopaque material that leave particulate residue on or within the skin. These include:
deodorants/antiperspirants, particularly solid applicator products 1
powders, such as those containing talc 2,3
soa...
Article
Asymmetry in breast size
Asymmetry in breast size can arise from a number of factors.
Pathology
Breasts are rarely absolutely the same size or volume. Normal variation is common. Most females have slight discrepancies in breast size. Asymmetric progressive breast enlargement is unusual but known. The role of the breas...
Article
Asymmetry (mammography)
Asymmetries in mammography represent a spectrum of morphological descriptors for a unilateral fibroglandular-density finding seen on one or more mammographic projections that do not meet criteria for a mass. The term refers to a density finding and should not be confused with asymmetry in breast...
Article
Atypical ductal hyperplasia
Atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) is a histologically borderline lesion that has some, but not all the features of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). Sometimes the distinction between ADH and DCIS is simply on the basis of the number of ducts involved.
Pathology
Atypical ductal hyperplasia is a...
Article
Atypical lobular hyperplasia
Atypical lobular hyperplasia (ALH) is a pre-malignant lesion of the breast which falls at the milder end of the spectrum of lobular neoplasia. It is therefore considered a part of borderline breast disease.
Clinical presentation
It is usually asymptomatic and mammographically occult and is in...
Article
Automated full-field volumetric ultrasound
An automatic full-field volumetric breast ultrasound scanner (AFFBUS) is a developing technology which was initiated to overcome the drawback of dense breast and to get a three-dimensional view of the breast.
Components
scan station
view station
Scan station
Automatic ultrasound imaging ac...
Article
Axillary lymph nodes
The axillary lymph nodes, also known commonly as axillary nodes, are a group of lymph nodes in the axilla and receive lymph from vessels that drain the arm, the walls of the thorax, the breast and the upper walls of the abdomen.
Gross anatomy
There are five axillary lymph node groups, namely t...
Article
Axillary view
An axillary view (also known as a "Cleopatra view“) is a type of supplementary mammographic view. It is an exaggerated craniocaudal view for better imaging of the lateral portion of the breast to the axillary tail. This projection is performed whenever we want to show a lesion seen only in the a...
Article
Background parenchymal enhancement (breast MRI)
Background parenchymal enhancement on breast MRI refers to the normal contrast enhancement of fibroglandular tissue.
Epidemiology
Background parenchymal enhancement is more common in younger patients with dense breasts 1,8. Reflecting hormonal influence, background enhancement is decreased aft...
Article
Balloon breast brachytherapy
Balloon breast brachytherapy (BBB) is a technique for delivering radiation treatment in women with early-stage breast cancer. It is given after lumpectomy, or surgical removal of a small breast neoplasm, and is a shorter alternative to the more traditional method of external beam radiation for s...
Article
Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound
Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound allow the classification as either malignant, intermediate or benign based on work published by Stavros et al. in 1995.
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Malignant characteristics (with positive predictive values)
sonographi...
Article
Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy (differential)
Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy can result from a number of causes and generally implies a systemic process. They include:
autoimmune diseases, e.g.:
rheumatoid arthritis
scleroderma
dermatomyositis 5
systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
psoriasis
Sjögren syndrome
lymphoma
leukaemia
d...
Article
Borderline breast disease
Borderline breast disease (BBD) refers to a group of conditions while being not completely malignant are still concerning. Usually an excision biopsy is recommended if entities falling into borderline breast disease is detected on core biopsy.
These entities include:
atypical ductal hyperplasi...
Article
Brachytherapy
Brachytherapy, also known as sealed source radiotherapy or endocurietherapy, is a form of radiotherapy where a radioactive source is placed, under the guidance of imaging, within or next to the area requiring treatment. This provides localised targeted internal radiation.
Brachytherapy has bee...
Article
Breast
The breast is an apocrine gland seen in both males and females. However, in females it has a specific function which is the production of milk for neonatal nutrition and immune function.
Gross anatomy
Composition
The breast has an inhomogeneous structure which is predominantly composed of adi...
Article
Breast abscess
A breast abscess is a relatively rare but significant complication of mastitis that may occur during breastfeeding, particularly in primiparous women. The clinical context is a key to diagnosis as imaging appearances (particularly ultrasound) can mimic many other entities such as breast carcinom...
Article
Breast amyloidosis
Amyloid deposition in the breast occurs predominantly in two forms
breast involvement in primary amyloidosis - commoner
in association with other conditions like multiple myeloma, plasmacytosis and rheumatoid arthritis and another in the localised form which is rarer.
Clinical presentation
...
Article
Breast aneurysm
Breast aneurysms are a rarely seen cause of a breast mass.
Pathology
Types
true aneurysm: occurs post trauma and is seen as a slowly enlarging pulsatile mass
false aneurysm / pseudoaneurysm: occurs in acute trauma, post percutaneous biopsy, due to spontaneous haemorrhage secondary to coagulo...
Article
Breast architectural distortion
Breast architectural distortion is a descriptive term in breast imaging (mammography, ultrasound, and MRI) to indicate that the breast parenchyma is tethered or indented. The finding per se is not a mass.
Pathology
Architectural distortion is often due to a desmoplastic reaction in which there...
Article
Breast calcifications
Breast calcifications are deposits of calcium salts in the breast, which are radio-opaque on mammography. The majority are benign, but they can be associated with cancer. The ability to diagnose and appropriately manage the significant microcalcifications and differentiate them from innocuous fi...
Article
Breast calcifications (an approach)
An approach to breast calcifications in terms of imaging evaluation and biopsy aims to distinguish benign from malignant aetiologies. This article overviews a general approach to the evaluation of breast calcifications. The types and descriptors of calcifications are detailed separately: breast ...
Article
Breast cancer metastases
Metastases from breast cancer can be a frequent finding in routine oncoradiological practice.
Clinical presentation
With the universal use and acceptance of screening mammography, the isolated clinical presentation from metastases from breast carcinoma has become rare in clinical practice. His...
Article
Breast cancer (staging)
Breast cancer staging refers to TNM classification of breast carcinomas. The system applies to epithelial malignancies and does not apply to breast sarcomas, phyllodes tumour, or breast lymphomas. The following article reflects the 8th edition manual published by the American Joint Committee on ...
Article
Breast cancer (summary)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Breast cancer is the commonest malignancy in female patients.
Reference article
This is a summary article; read more in our article on breast cancer.
Summary
epidemiology
1 in 4 cancer deaths in women worldwide 1
In A...
Article
Breast cellulitis
Breast cellulitis is an acute pyogenic inflammatory change involving the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. This can be secondary to any wound, surgery or radiation for breast carcinoma.
Clinical presentation
inflammatory changes such as oedema, swelling and redness of the involved breast
no de...
Article
Breast core biopsy
The percutaneous breast biopsy is one of the current choices for focal histopathological assessment of breast lesions. In contrast to fine needle aspiration, during a core needle biopsy, a hollow needle is used to withdraw small cores of tissue from the area of interest in the breast.
This pro...
Article
Breast curriculum
The breast curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent core breast knowledge.
Definitions
Topics pertaining to the breast.
Anatomy
An understanding of the anatomy of relevant structures is essential. Core anatomical topics include:
du...
Article
Breast cyst
Breast cysts are a common mammographic and sonographic finding, and can be of different types:
simple breast cyst: typically is a well-defined, anechoic lesion with imperceptible wall and posterior acoustic enhancement 1
complicated breast cyst: contains intracystic echoes or debris with other...
Article
Breast density
Breast density refers to the amount of fibroglandular tissue in a breast relative to fat. It can significantly vary between individuals and within individuals over a lifetime.
Classification
There are four descriptors for breast density on mammography in the 5th edition of BI-RADS 1,2:
a: the...
Article
Breast ductography
Breast ductography (a.k.a. galactography) is an imaging technique which is used to evaluate lesions causing nipple discharge. It helps in precisely locating the mass within breast tissue and gives useful information for surgical approach and planning.
Technique
A blunt-tipped sialogram needle ...
Article
Breast echotexture
Breast echotexture refers to the background tissue appearance on breast sonography, analogous to breast density/amount of fibroglandular tissue on mammography and MRI. There are three categories of tissue composition according to the BI-RADS lexicon 1:
homogeneous background echotexture – fat
...
Article
Breast filariasis
Breast filariasis describes filariasis, a parasitic infestation commonly caused by Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi, of the breast.
Epidemiology
Lymphatic filariasis puts at risk more than a billion people in more than 80 countries who are seriously incapacitated or disfigured by the dis...
Article
Breast haematoma
Breast haematoma can result from preceding direct trauma, surgery, biopsy (rare) or contusion and can be easily misinterpreted as other lesions such as breast malignancy if the correct clinical context is not taken into account. They can rarely occur spontaneously, especially in those with coagu...
Article
Breast hamartoma
Breast hamartomas, also known as fibroadenolipomas, are benign breast lesions. They are typified by a "breast within a breast" appearance on mammogram.
Epidemiology
They typically occur in women older than 35 years of age.
Clinical presentation
Breast hamartomas most commonly are asymptomat...
Article
Breast hypoplasia
Breast hypoplasia is a condition which is characterised by underdevelopment of the breast. Breast hypoplasia can be congenital or acquired.
Pathology
Congenital hypoplasia
Associations include:
ulnar-mammary syndrome
Poland syndrome
Turner syndrome
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Acquired...
Article
Breast imaging and the technologist
Breast screening and diagnostic programmes cannot exist without the technologists. They play an indispensable role in the acquisition of mammogram and ultrasound images in both screening and diagnostic settings.
The mammogram technologist: the primary responsibility of the "mammo tech" is the ...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS)
BI-RADS (Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System) is a risk assessment and quality assurance tool developed by American College of Radiology that provides a widely accepted lexicon and reporting schema for imaging of the breast. It applies to mammography, ultrasound, and MRI. This article refle...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 0
BI-RADS 0 is one of seven categories from the breast imaging-reporting and data system and is used when imaging is incomplete such as:
when further imaging or information is required, e.g. compression, magnification, special mammographic views, ultrasound
when requesting previous images not av...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 1
A BI-RADS 1 category under the breast imaging reporting and data system is when no finding is present in an imaging modality (not even a benign finding).
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 2
BI-RADS 2 is a benign category in breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category should have a 100% chance of being benign.
Examples of such lesions or findings include:
calcified fibroadenomas
multiple secretory calcifications
fat-containing lesions such as:
o...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 3
BI-RADS 3 is an intermediate category in the breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category is considered probably benign, with a risk of malignancy between 0% and 2%.
Terminology
BI-RADS 3 should not be utilised in the screening setting. It should be reserved for ...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 4
A BI-RADS 4 lesion under the breast imaging-reporting and data system refers to a suspicious abnormality. BI-RADS 4 lesions may not have the characteristic morphology of breast cancer but have a definite probability of being malignant. A biopsy is recommended for these lesions. If possible, the ...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 5
BI-RADS 5 lesions under the BI-RADS (breast imaging reporting and data system) refer to breast lesions that are highly suspicious for malignancy, requiring appropriate action to be taken (i.e. biopsy and management as appropriate). BI-RADS 5 lesions have the characteristic morphology of breast c...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS) assessment category 6
BI-RADS 6 is an assessment category of the ACR (American College of Radiology) BI-RADS system.
Patients with biopsy-proven cancer prior to definitive therapy would be category 6.
Article
Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma (BIA-ALCL) is a rare form of T-cell primary breast lymphoma that has primarily been associated with textured breast implants.
Terminology
In BIA-ALCL, the peri-implant fluid is referred to as an effusion rather than seroma, as the latte...
Article
Breast implant rupture
Breast implant ruptures are a recognised complication of a breast implant. It can be intracapsular, when confined by the surrounding fibrous capsule, or extracapsular, when silicone freely extravasates.
Pathology
After implantation of a silicone or saline breast implant, a fibrous capsule (sc...
Article
Breast implants
Breast implants are increasingly common in general breast radiology practice.
Classification
Location
Breast implants may be placed behind the glandular tissue but in front of the pectoral muscle:
subglandular
submammary
retroglandular
retromammary
The second position of breast implants ...
Article
Breast lesion localisation (mnemonic)
A mnemonic to help remember breast lesion localisation when given a set of mammograms in mediolateral oblique (MLO) and 90-degree/true lateral (mediolateral [ML] or lateromedial [LM]) views to predict laterality is:
muffins rise and lead falls
This can help localise a finding on MLO during dia...
Article
Breast lipoma
Breast lipomas are a benign breast lesion and is classified as a BIRADS II lesion.
Clinical presentation
Lipomas are mostly asymptomatic and coincidentally discovered on routine mammography. Patients may present with a painless palpable breast lump which is soft and mobile. In these cases the ...
Article
Breast lumps
Breast lumps have different characteristics that allow simplification of differential diagnosis by breaking down the vast list into sections. Consider whether the lump fits into one of these categories.
Spiculated lesion
Spiculation is a feature of neoplasms and all masses that display spicula...
Article
Breast lymphoma
Breast lymphoma refers to the involvement of the breast with lymphoma and may be primary or secondary.
Epidemiology
Both primary and secondary breast lymphomas are rare. Breast lymphoma accounts for <1% of all breast malignancies and <2% of all extranodal non-Hodgkin lymphoma 11. Secondary lym...
Article
Breast mass
Breast masses are three-dimensional space-occupying lesions in the breasts. This article provides an overview of the standard BI-RADS terminology used to describe breast masses in radiology reports and other reporting suggestions.
Radiographic features
Breast masses are described differently b...
Article
Breast MRI
Breast MRI is the most sensitive method (>90%) for the detection of breast cancer, its role in diagnosis and management continues to evolve 13.
Terminology
Dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI provides information about the morphology and function of a lesion with high sensitivity but moderate ...
Article
Breast MRI enhancement curves
Following administration of gadolinium, there can be three possible enhancement (time intensity) kinetic curves for a lesion on breast MRI (these are also applied in other organs such as prostate MRI). These are sometimes termed the Kuhl enhancement curves.
type I curve: progressive or persiste...
Article
Breast neoplasms
Breast neoplasms consist of a wide spectrum of pathologies from benign proliferations, high-risk lesions, precursor lesions, to invasive malignancies. This article provides an overview for radiologists, with a focus on breast cancer. For a summary article for medical students and non-radiologis...
Article
Breast sarcoma
Breast sarcoma refers to a relatively heterogenous group of rare breast tumours which can include:
angiosarcoma of the breast
pleomorphic sarcoma of the breast
fibrosarcoma of the breast
myxofibrosarcoma of the breast
leiomyosarcoma of the breast
primary osteosarcoma of the breast
Epidem...
Article
Breast screening programmes
Breast screening programs are programs where mammography or other screening methods are carried out in populations of asymptomatic women for the improved detection of breast cancer.
Such programs vary widely from country to country. The WHO recommends implementing different programs based on th...
Article
Breast sebaceous cyst
Breast sebaceous cyst, also sometimes known as an epidermal inclusion cyst or simply epidermoid cyst, is a benign breast lesion (BIRADS II).
For a general discussion of this entity outside the breast, please refer to epidermal inclusion cysts.
Terminology
The two terms, breast sebaceous cys...
Article
Breast tissue markers
Breast tissue markers are a common finding in breast radiology. These are typically inserted following percutaneous biopsy, either under ultrasound or sterotactic guidance. They can be invaluable in identifying known benign areas or shrinking/treated malignant lesions on follow up imaging.
A nu...
Article
Breast ultrasound
Breast ultrasound is an important modality in breast imaging. It is the usual initial breast imaging modality in those under 30 years of age in many countries ref.
In assessing for malignancy, it is important to remember that one must use the most suspicious feature of three modalities (patholo...
Article
Breast varix
Breast varix is, as the name suggests, varices in the breast that are focally dilated veins in the breast.
Pathology
If varices are seen bilaterally then a cause for central venous obstruction (superior vena cava syndrome) could be the underlying aetiology with the varices being a part of the...
Article
Breast venous malformation
Breast venous malformations (also known as breast haemangiomas) are benign vascular lesions occurring within breast tissue.
Most breast venous malformations are so called cavernous malformations, which are found throughout the body. For a general discussion please refer to the general article o...
Article
Breast within a breast sign
The breast within a breast sign refers to the common mammographic appearance of breast hamartomas (fibroadenolipomas). Since these benign lesions are well-circumscribed and contain a mixture of fibrous, glandular and fatty tissue (just like normal breast), it is not surprising that they appear v...
Article
BSBR breast imaging classification
The British Society of Breast Radiologists (BSBR) publish with the Royal College of Radiologists a standardised classification for breast imaging in the United Kingdom. The first edition in 2009 was based on findings from the RCR Breast Group (RCRBG) 1 with the current fourth edition published i...
Article
Bullseye view
The bullseye view is designed for better evaluation of lesion located in retroareolar area. In this view, the nipple-areola complex are directed upward or downward on the detector surface to visualise the areolar and periareolar region en face, allowing characterisation of lesions in this area.
Article
CA 15-3
Carcinoma antigen 15-3, usually shortened to CA 15-3 is a tumour marker used in monitoring breast cancer. The test detects levels of MUC-1, a mucin protein in the blood. MUC-1 is thought to be important in the invasiveness and metastasisation of cancer cells.
Physiology
MUC-1 is a normal epith...
Article
Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy (differential)
Calcific axillary lymphadenopathy is in general, more concerning than axillary lymphadenopathy alone and is particularly so if it contains microcalcifications. While this is concerning for malignancy, it can also occur from occasional nonmalignant causes
Causes include
metastatic axillary lymp...
Article
Capsular contracture
Capsular contractures are a potential complication of a breast implant and refers to a tightening and hardening of the capsule that surrounds a breast implant. It is a condition that can distort the shape and cause pain in the augmented breast. It seems to be the commonest complication post-brea...
Article
Caudal cranial projection
Caudal cranial projection is an additional trouble shooting view.
Technique
invert the C arm as for a CC projection
step the patient forward and have her bend excessively forward at the waist to ensure that the abdomen does not encroach in the x ray field
place the image receptor above the b...
Article
Causes of breast oedema (mnemonic)
The causes of breast oedema can be remembered using the mnemonic:
VIRALS
Mnemonic
V: venous obstruction
I: inflammatory breast cancer
R: radiotherapy
A: abscess
L: lymphatic obstruction
S: surgery (recent), secondaries 2
Article
Cavernous venous malformation
Cavernous venous malformation, also traditionally referred to as a cavernous haemangioma (despite it not being a tumour) or cavernomas, are non-neoplastic slow flow venous malformations found in many parts of the body.
Terminology
Despite the ubiquity of use of the traditional terms cavernoma...
Article
Chassaignac bursa
Chassaignac bursa (also known as the retromammary bursa, submammary serous bursa or occasionally Chassaignac bag) is the space behind the breast, lying between the pectoralis fascia posteriorly and deep layer of superficial fascia anteriorly.
It contains loose connective tissue and aids in mobi...
Article
Classification of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)
The new pathological classification of DCIS (ductal carcinoma in situ) is based on cytonuclear atypia, degree of necrosis, size, and distance from margin/architecture. Low and intermediate grades DCIS require cytologic, architectural and size criteria to be met but high-grade DCIS requires only ...
Article
Cleavage view
A cleavage view (also called "valley view") is a mammogram view that depict the posteromedial portion of both breasts (the “valley” between the two breasts) by placing them on the cassette at the same time and pulling them anteriorly.
Manual technical factors should be used.
A cleavage view m...
Article
Clothing artifact
Clothing artifacts, like jewellery artifacts, are a regular feature on imaging examinations, especially plain radiographs, but in general are recognised for what they are, either at the time the image is taken by the radiographer, or later by the reporting radiologist. The radiographer will ofte...