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Pulmonary vein stenosis

Pulmonary vein stenosis refers to a spectrum of conditions characterized by narrowing of the pulmonary veins. It can be congenital or acquired. primary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in children secondary pulmonary vein stenosis - occurs in adults and usually associated with some identifiabl...

Quadricuspid aortic valve

Quadricuspid aortic valve (QAV) is a rare cardiac valvular anomaly where the aortic valve has four cusps, instead of the usual three. Epidemiology The estimated incidence on necropsy at ~1 in 8,000. While the incidence of QAV on 2D echocardiography has been reported to range between 0.01-0.04%...

Radiation-induced heart disease

Radiation-induced heart disease, also known as radiation cardiotoxicity, describes an uncommon constellation of potential cardiac complications of mediastinal radiotherapy. Epidemiology The demographics of patients affected by radiation-induced heart disease are those of the underlying conditi...

Raghib syndrome

Raghib syndrome is a rare developmental complex. It consists of: persistence of the left superior vena cava coronary sinus ostial atresia atrial septal defect It has also been associated with other congenital malformations including ventricular septal defects, enlargement of the tricuspid an...

Rapid ultrasound in shock

The rapid ultrasound in shock (RUSH) protocol is a structured point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) examination performed at the time of presentation of a shocked patient. It is a more detailed and longer exam than the FAST scan, with the aim to differentiate between hypovolemic, cardiogenic, obstruc...

RASopathy

RASopathies are a class of developmental disorders caused by germline mutations in genes that encode for components or regulators of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Epidemiology As a group, RASopathies represent one of the most common malformation syndromes, with an in...

Rastelli procedure

The Rastelli procedure is a surgical procedure to correct certain combinations of cardiovascular defects in patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease. Rationale The operation is based on a redirection of ventricular outflows using an intracardiac baffle that tunnels the left ventricle to...

Restrictive cardiomyopathy

Restrictive cardiomyopathy is the least common subtype of cardiomyopathy and is characterized by a marked decrease in ventricular compliance. Clinical presentation Patients can present with symptoms and signs of left ventricular failure and/or right ventricular failure 9. Pathology It is p...

Rhabdomyosarcoma (cardiac)

Cardiac rhabdomyosarcoma is a muscular tumor that arises in the heart. Epidemiology They account for only 4-7% of cardiac sarcomas overall but are the most common cardiac malignancy in infants and children. There is a slight male predilection. Pathology Location Cardiac rhabdomyosarcoma hav...

Rheumatic fever

Rheumatic fever is an illness caused by an immunological reaction following group A streptococcal infection. Epidemiology Risk factors include: children and adolescents aged 5 to 15 years. developing nations where antibiotic prescription is low 1. poverty, overcrowding Clinical presentati...

Rheumatic heart disease

Rheumatic heart disease (not to be confused with rheumatoid heart disease) may refer to either the acute cardiac involvement or chronic cardiac sequelae following rheumatic fever. Carditis is a major Jones criterion of rheumatic fever. Epidemiology Risk factors include: socioeconomic factors ...

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune multisystemic inflammatory disease which affects many organs but predominantly attacks the synovial tissues and joints. Epidemiology The overall prevalence is 0.5-1% and the disease is 2-3 times more common in women 1. Onset is generally in ad...

Right atrial enlargement

Right atrial enlargement is less common, and harder to delineate on chest radiograph, than left atrial enlargement. Pathology Causes Enlargement of the right atrium can result from a number of conditions, including: raised right ventricular pressures pulmonary arterial hypertension cor pul...

Right atrial line

The right atrial (RA) line monitors RA pressure and is indicative of right ventricular function, preload and afterload. The RA line enters the right atrium through the right atrial appendage, and always exits the right side of the chest medial to the left atrial line. It is typically a double lu...

Right atrium

The right atrium (RA) is one of the four chambers of the human heart, and is the first chamber to receive deoxygenated blood returning from the body. It plays an important role in originating and regulating the conduction of the heart. Gross anatomy The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood...

Right coronary artery

The right coronary artery (RCA) is one of the two main coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygenated blood. Gross anatomy Origin It is a branch of the ascending aorta, with its normal origin in the right aortic sinus, just superior to the aortic valve Course The RCA courses to th...

Right heart strain

Right heart strain (or more precisely right ventricular strain) is a term given to denote the presence of right ventricular dysfunction usually in the absence of an underlying cardiomyopathy. It can manifest as an acute right heart syndrome. Pathology Right heart strain can often occur as a re...

Right marginal artery

The right marginal artery, also known as the right intermediate atrial branch, supplies the surrounding right atrial tissues 1,2 and, in 10-15% of cases, provides the main arterial supply to the sinus node 3,4. Terminology It also sometimes known as a the acute marginal artery or margo acutus ...

Right pulmonary venous recess

The right pulmonary venous recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium. It arises from the pericardial cavity proper located between the right superior and inferior pulmonary veins, posterior to the left atrium. It invaginates towards the oblique perica...

Right pulmonic recess

The right pulmonic recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the transverse pericardial sinus. It is located posterior to the right pulmonary artery and anterior to the esophagus. It may mimic mediastinal lymphadenopathy or a bronc...

Right-to-left shunt (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the differential diagnoses associated with right-to-left cardiovascular shunts is: 1-5 Mnemonic 1: a combination vessel; truncus arteriosus 2: number of arteries involved; transposition of the great arteries 3: "tri-" means 3, the number of leaflets involved; t...

Right ventricle

The right ventricle is the most anterior of the four heart chambers. It receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary circulation. During diastole, blood enters the right ventricle through the atrioventricular orifice through an open tricuspid valve. During sy...

Right ventricular dysfunction

Right ventricular dysfunction usually results from either pressure overload, volume overload, or a combination. It occur in a number of clinical scenarios, including: pressure overload cardiomyopathies: ischemic, congenital valvular heart disease arrhythmias sepsis It can manifest as r...

Right ventricular enlargement

Right ventricular enlargement can be the result of a number of conditions, including: pulmonary valve stenosis pulmonary arterial hypertension atrial septal defect (ASD) ventricular septal defect (VSD) tricuspid regurgitation dilated cardiomyopathy anomalous pulmonary venous drainage te...

Right ventricular function (point of care ultrasound)

Right ventricular function is often measured in point-of-care ultrasonography as a composite of the right ventricular size, wall measurements, and contractile efforts. Terminology The right ventricle (RV) can be anatomically divided into an inflow portion, an outflow portion, and an apex. Con...

Right ventricular outflow tract view (fetal echocardiogram)

The right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) view (or three vessel view/3VV) is one of the standard views in a fetal echocardiogram. It is a long axis view of the heart, highlighting the path from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk (right ventricular outflow tract). In this view, the r...

Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome

Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome (RTSC), also known as 3C (cranio-cerebello-cardiac) syndrome, is a rare entity with a variable spectrum of CNS (primarily cerebellar), craniofacial, and congenital heart defects. Clinical presentation craniofacial cleft palate ocular coloboma prominent occiput lo...

Ross procedure

Ross procedure involves the use of a pulmonary homograft for surgical aortic valve replacement. Indications It can be used to treat a broad array of aortic valve pathologies, often aortic stenosis. Contraindications multivessel coronary artery disease multiple valvular pathologies in which...

Saddle pulmonary embolism

Saddle pulmonary embolism commonly refers to a large pulmonary embolism that straddles the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk, extending into the left and right pulmonary arteries. If large enough, it can completely obstruct both left and right pulmonary arteries resulting in right heart failur...

Sano shunt

The Sano shunt is a palliative surgical technique sometimes used as a step in Norwood procedure for hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The procedure involves placement of an extracardiac conduit between the right ventricle and main pulmonary artery stump. This technique prevents the reduced diast...

Sarcoidosis (cardiac manifestations)

Cardiac involvement of sarcoidosis is a manifestation of sarcoidosis which is often asymptomatic, although can be associated with high mortality 8. Autopsy studies show prevalence of ~25% cardiac involvement, yet only 5-10% are found symptomatic 1,2. Sarcoidosis is a multisystem disorder chara...

Scleroderma

Scleroderma, also known as systemic sclerosis, is an autoimmune connective tissue disorder characterized by multisystem fibrosis and soft tissue calcification. As such, it affects many separate organ systems, which are discussed separately: musculoskeletal manifestations of scleroderma pulmona...

Secondary malignant cardiac tumor

Secondary malignant cardiac tumors or cardiac metastases refer to a secondary malignant tumor involving any structural component of the heart. It represents spread of a primary neoplasm via lymphatic, haematogenous, or endovascular pathways, or potentially by direct extension from an adjacent ti...

Selenium deficiency

Selenium deficiency (or hyposelenaemia) when severe may present with arthritic and cardiac-related symptoms. Epidemiology Up to one billion people globally are thought to have some degree of selenium deficiency. Phenylketonuria patients are more likely to experience selenium deficiency as ma...

Senning repair

The Senning repair is one of two "atrial switch" procedures used to functionally correct transposition of the great arteries (the other being the Mustard repair). The two repairs share a similar fundamental principle. Systemic blood flow is redirected away from the right ventricle and toward t...

Septal bounce

Septal bounce is a sign of ventricular interdependence on echocardiography, cardiac CT, and cardiac MRI, manifested by paradoxical interventricular septal movement during early diastole (i.e. initial septal movement towards and then away from the left ventricle) seen mainly in constrictive peric...

Septal branches of the left anterior descending artery

The septal branches of the left anterior descending artery supply blood flow to the interventricular septum of the heart. Origin These are branches from the left anterior descending artery Supply They provide the main blood supply to the anterior interventricular septum. A smaller posterior ...

Septal flash

Septal flash, also known as septal beaking, is a sign of interventricular dyssynchrony seen on echocardiography or cinematographic cardiac CT/MRI. It represents an abnormal rapid movement pattern of the interventricular septum during pre-ejection systole (i.e. isovolumic contraction): septal mo...

Shepherd's crook right coronary artery

A shepherd’s crook right coronary artery is variant in the terms of the course of the right coronary artery. While the RCA origin is normal it is characterized by a tortuous and high course, usually just after its origin from the aorta. Its prevalence is estimated at approximately 5%. While ofte...

Shmoo sign

Shmoo sign refers to the appearance of a prominent, rounded left ventricle and dilated aorta on a plain AP chest radiograph giving the appearance of Shmoo, a fictional cartoon character in the comic strip Li'l Abner, which first appeared in 1948. This sign is indicative of left ventricular enlar...

Sigmoid shaped interventricular septum

A sigmoid-shaped interventricular septum is considered an anatomical variant which gives the interventricular septum sigmoid or S like contour. It may be more commoner in elderly patients. It has been occasionally be associated with syncope 1 and mild ventricular obstruction 2.

Single coronary artery

Single coronary arteries are rare (incidence 0.03-0.07%), with a higher incidence in patients with congenital heart disease (in particular truncus arteriosus and pulmonary atresia). They occur when there is a single ostia arising from the aorta with no ectopic ostia. There is a wide variety of c...

Sinoatrial nodal artery

The sinoatrial (SA) nodal artery is the small artery that supplies the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart (the pacemaker). Gross anatomy Origin Right coronary artery in 60% of cases and the left coronary artery in 40% of cases. Course The artery turns posteriorly below the superior vena cav...

Sinus of Valsalva aneurysm

Sinus of Valsalva aneurysms are a cause of thoracic aortic dilatation. They can be either congenital or acquired (mycotic). Epidemiology There is a male predilection (M:F ratio being around 3-4:1). They are relatively more common in eastern and Asian populations and can occur in any age group ...

Small cardiac vein

The small cardiac vein is a vein of the heart which accompanies the acute marginal artery from the RCA. It courses in the right posterior atrioventricular groove and drains into the coronary sinus close to it’s termination but may drain directly into the right atrium. It drains the right ventric...

Snowman sign (total anomalous pulmonary venous return)

Snowman sign refers to the configuration of the heart and the superior mediastinal borders resembling a snowman. This is seen in total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) type I (supracardiac type). It is an abnormality of the fetal circulation wherein the entire pulmonary venous flow is ...

Sonographic approach to dyspnea (mnemonic)

This mnemonic will help with the sonographic approach to the critically ill patient with dyspnea: CHEST Mnemonic C: collapsed lung (pneumothorax) absence of anterior lung sliding, lung pulse, B-lines, or z-lines these artifacts arise from the pleural interface; their presence would rule ou...

Speckle tracking echocardiography

Speckle tracking echocardiography is a new player in the cardiac arena which is rapidly making its mark in cardiac and radiology circles alike. It is an objective, robust, semiautomatic and reproducible technique with a short post processing time. Traditionally, left ventricular function is mea...

Stanford classification of aortic dissection

Along with the DeBakey classification, the Stanford classification is used to separate aortic dissections into those that need surgical repair, and those that usually require only medical management. The Stanford classification divides dissections by the most proximal involvement: type A: A aff...

Straight left heart border sign

Straight left heart border sign is a recently described finding on chest radiograph. It is a fairly specific (84%) sign of hemopericardium after a penetrating chest trauma, although sensitivity at 40% is relatively poor. Positive predictive value (PPV) was found to be 89% 1. It is different to ...

Stunned myocardium

Stunned myocardium refers to a situation in which an acute transient myocardial ischemic event results in a prolonged wall motion abnormality which eventually resolves. The term is usually distinguished from "hibernating" myocardium, in which a chronic ischemic process leads to chronic left ven...

Superior aortic recess

The superior aortic recess is one of the pericardial recesses forming a small space within the pericardium, which arises from the superior margin of the transverse pericardial sinus and surrounds the root of the ascending aorta. Its components are variable and may be further subdivided into: a...

Surgical hemostatic material

Surgical hemostatic material is used to control bleeding intraoperatively and is hence frequently voluntarily left in the operative bed, not to be confused with a gossypiboma which is caused by foreign material left behind in error. It can mimic an abscess on imaging studies. Various types are a...

Surgically-created cardiac shunts (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for surgically-created cardiac shunts for congenital heart disease is: great flow really would be perfect The mnemonic is ordered by the position of the shunt antegrade to normal blood flow through the heart, proceeding from the systemic venous system into the right heart, and then...

Syphilis

Syphilis is the result of infection with the gram negative spirochete Treponema pallidum, subspecies pallidum. It results in a heterogeneous spectrum of disease with many systems that can potentially be involved, which are discussed separately. Epidemiology Despite the discovery of penicillin...

Systemic lupus erythematosus (thoracic manifestations)

Thoracic manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus can be variable. For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on systemic lupus erythematosus. Pathology Pleuropulmonary manifestations pleuritis: considered one of the c...

Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy

Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy (TIC) (or tachycardiomyopathy) is considered a reversible form of acquired cardiomyopathy where there is impaired left ventricular systolic dysfunction precipitated by a tachycardia or a tachyarrhythmia. Typically there is an impairment left ventricular systol...

Takeuchi procedure

The Takeuchi procedure refers to a direct anastomosis of the anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta was described in the 1970s and currently remains the procedure of choice. An intrapulmonary aortocoronary tunnel or baffle was performed by Takeuchi prior ...

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) is a condition charactised by transient regional abnormal cardiac wall motion, not defined to single coronary arterial territory. It has been described predominantly in postmenopausal women, often following exposure to sudden, unexpected emotional or physical stress...

Taussig-Bing anomaly

Taussig-Bing anomaly is a rare congenital heart malformation and is one of the variants of double outlet right ventricle. It consists of transposition of the aorta to the right ventricle and malposition of the pulmonary artery with subpulmonary ventricular septal defect. History and etymology ...

Technetium agents

Technetium agents based on the technetium-99m (Tc-99m) radioisotope are frequently used agents in medical imaging. The radioactive technetium radiotracer can be chelated to a number of different compounds to create specific radiopharmaceuticals and optimise the functional imaging of various stru...

Temporary ventricular assist devices

Temporary ventricular assist devices (or temporary VADs) are temporary percutaneous devices used in supporting a failing heart in cardiogenic shock or perioperatively. Principle Temporary VADs consist of an inlet, outlet and impeller pump all housed within a catheter. Temporary VADs are insert...

Tetralogy of Fallot

Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is the overall most common cyanotic congenital heart condition with many cases presenting after the newborn period. It has been classically characterized by the combination of ventricular septal defect (VSD), right ventricular outflow tract obstruction (RVOTO), overridi...

Tetralogy of fallot (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for the underlying anatomic defects in tetralogy of Fallot is: PROVe Mnemonic P: pulmonary stenosis R: right ventricular hypertrophy O: overriding aorta V: ventricular septal defect

Thallium-201 chloride

Thallium-201 chloride is a radiopharmaceutical used primarily in cardiac imaging. Characteristics photon energy: 80 keV physical half life: 73 hours biological half life rest: 3 minutes exercise: 30 seconds normal distribution: myocardium, skeletal muscle, GI tract, liver, kidneys excret...

Third mogul sign

The third mogul sign can be seen on frontal chest radiograph in the presence of left atrial enlargement. It refers to an extra mogul or bump along the upper left cardiac silhouette just below the left main bronchus. The third mogul sign commonly represents the enlarged left atrial appendage, pa...

Thoracic aorta

The thoracic aorta is the most superior division of the aorta and is divided into three sections: ascending aorta aortic arch descending aorta The thoracic aorta begins at the aortic valve, located obliquely just to the left of the midline at the level of the the third intercostal space. It ...

Thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) risk score

The thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) risk score is a prognostic risk stratification system that categorizes the risk of death and ischemic events in patients with unstable angina / NSTEMI and provides a basis for therapeutic decision making. It is thought to have potential to improve...

Total anomalous pulmonary venous return

Total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) is a cyanotic congenital heart anomaly with an abnormal drainage anatomy of the entire pulmonary venous system. This contrasts with partial anomalous pulmonary venous return (PAPVR) where only part of the pulmonary venous anatomy is abnormal. In T...

Total repair of tetralogy of Fallot

Total repair of tetralogy of Fallot is a corrective surgical procedure that involves closure of the ventricular septal defect (VSD) and relief of right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) obstruction. Procedure Most patients with tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) undergo elective surgical repair between ...

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI)

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation or replacement (TAVI/TAVR) is a technique to replace the aortic valve through a transvascular or transapical approach. Compared to traditional open aortic valve replacement with sternotomy and a heart-lung bypass machine, the TAVI technique is less invasiv...

Transesophageal echocardiography

A standard transesophageal echocardiography (TOE, or TEE in US English) is a type of ultrasound using an endoscopic transducer, which is advanced into the esophagus, offering generally superior visualization of the great vessels and posterior cardiac structures than the standard transthoracic ap...

Transient ischemic dilatation

Transient ischemic dilatation (TID) is a paradoxical phenomenon seen in myocardial perfusion SPECT imaging. With severe balanced coronary artery disease, myocardial ischemia may result in apparent enlargement of the left ventricular cavity during stress. The cause of this is not entirely clea...

Transposition of the great arteries

Transposition of the great arteries (TGA) is the most common cyanotic congenital cardiac anomaly presenting during the newborn period, with cyanosis in the first 24 hours of life. It accounts for up to 7% of all congenital cardiac anomalies 1 and can be assessed with echocardiography, gated car...

Transthoracic echocardiography views

A standard transthoracic echocardiogram consists of five standardized windows which are obtained in a standardized sequence 1. Obtaining views from the left parasternal, apical, subcostal, and suprasternal notch windows is mandatory for a complete echocardiography protocol. The right parasternal...

Transverse pericardial sinus

The transverse pericardial sinus is the transverse communication between the left and right parts of the pericardial space proper behind the two outflow arteries of the heart. Gross anatomy It is superior to the left atrium and posterior to the intrapericardial parts of the pulmonary trunk a...

Traumatic aortic injury in the exam

Getting a film with traumatic aortic injury in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. This is one of the cases you should look and not speak for 10 seconds as there tends to be a lot of findings on the film of patients with a traumatic aortic injury. Description...

Tricuspid atresia

Tricuspid atresia is a cyanotic congenital cardiac anomaly which is characterized by agenesis of the tricuspid valve and right ventricular inlet. There is almost always an obligatory intra-atrial connection through either an ASD or patent foramen ovale (PFO) in order for circulation to be comple...

Tricuspid valve

The tricuspid valve is one of the four cardiac valves. It is the atrioventricular valve that allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. It opens during diastole and closes during systole. The valve has anterior, posterior and septal leaflets (cusps), the bases of which at...

Tricuspid valve regurgitation

Tricuspid valve regurgitation, also known as tricuspid valve insufficiency or tricuspid valve incompetence, is a valvulopathy that describes leaking of the tricuspid valve during systole that causes blood to flow in the reverse direction from the right ventricle into the right atrium. Epidemiol...

Tricuspid valve stenosis

Tricuspid valve stenosis is a valvulopathy that describes narrowing of the opening of the tricuspid valve between the right ventricle and the right atrium. Epidemiology MS is seen more commonly in women and in countries, generally developing nations, where rheumatic fever is common 1,2. Clini...

Triple-rule-out CT

Triple-rule-out CT (TRO CT) angiography may be ordered in the setting of acute chest pain to examine the thoracic aorta and the coronary and pulmonary arteries. The protocol helps exclude life-threatening causes of acute chest pain, especially if atypical, or if alternative causes to acute coron...

Troponin

Troponin is a protein of key importance in the functioning of skeletal and cardiac muscle. It forms part of the contractile mechanism, and comprises three main subunits: troponin C, troponin I, and troponin T. Troponin elevation Elevation of serum troponin can occur from a number of causes an...

Truncus arteriosus

Truncus arteriosus is a cyanotic congenital heart anomaly in which a single trunk supplies both the pulmonary and systemic circulation, instead of a separate aorta and a pulmonary trunk. It is usually classified as a conotruncal anomaly. It accounts for up to 2% of congenital cardiac anomalies ...

Tuberous sclerosis

Tuberous sclerosis, also known as tuberous sclerosis complex or Bourneville disease, is a neurocutaneous disorder (phakomatosis) characterized by the development of multiple benign tumors of the embryonic ectoderm (e.g. skin, eyes, and nervous system). Epidemiology Tuberous sclerosis has an in...

Tuberous sclerosis (diagnostic criteria)

The tuberous sclerosis diagnostic criteria have been developed to aid the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis and have most recently been updated in 2012 by the International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group (at time of writing - 2018) 1. Criteria Genetic criteria The identification of...

Twiddler syndrome

Twiddler syndrome occurs when a patient manipulates (rotates) a subcutaneous chest device to the point of detaching and retracting the distal portion of the device. It is most commonly seen with implanted cardiac pacemakers or implantable cardiac defibrillators (ICDs). With continued rotation, ...

Uhl anomaly

Uhl anomaly is an unusual cardiac disorder which affects the right ventricle where there is almost complete absence of right ventricular myocardium, normal tricuspid valve, and preserved septal and left ventricular myocardium. History and etymology It is named after Henry S D Uhl, who first de...

Unifocalisation procedure

A unifocalisation procedure is a corrective surgical technique used in patients with complete pulmonary artery atresia with major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs). In this technique, the collateral vessels supplying blood from the aorta directly to the lungs are brought into continuit...

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia

Unilateral pulmonary vein atresia is a type of pulmonary vein atresia. Clinical presentation The condition usually present in infancy or childhood with recurrent episodes of pneumonia and/or hemoptysis. Presentation in adulthood does occur but is uncommon. Pathology It results from failure o...

Unroofed coronary sinus

An unroofed coronary sinus is a rare variant of atrial septal defect (ASD). The atrial wall between the coronary sinus and left atrium is either partially or completely absent, resulting in a left-to-right shunt. It is associated with persistent left-sided SVC and heterotaxy syndromes. Clinica...

Upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion

Upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion (cephalisation) reflects elevation of left atrial pressure and can occur with pulmonary edema. It produces stag-antler's sign on a frontal chest x-ray. The normal left atrial pressure is 5-10 mmHg. An elevation of left atrial pressure to 10-15 mmHg will res...

Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia

Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia is an uncommon presentation of glossopharyngeal neuralgia where the typical symptoms of pain are associated with cardiac symptoms including arrhythmias, asystole, and syncope. It is believed to be due to complex interconnections between the nervus intermedius, the...

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