Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
2,648 results found
Article
Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba syndrome
Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba syndrome (BRRS or BRR syndrome) is a very rare autosomal dominant hamartomatous disorder caused by a mutation in the PTEN gene. It is considered in the family of hamartomatous polyposis syndrome.
There are no formal diagnostic criteria for this disease, but characterist...
Article
Bannayan-Zonana syndrome
Bannayan-Zonana syndrome, also known as Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba syndrome, is a rare hamartomatous disorder.
Epidemiology
Male predominance is reported 1.
Clinical presentation
Bannayan-Zonana syndrome is characterized by:
macrocephaly
multiple lipomas
hemangiomas 1
Other findings that...
Article
Barbell sign (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy)
The barbell sign has been described in a short series of patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) 1.
This describes confluent FLAIR / T2w parieto-occipital abnormalities with a thin continuation of signal abnormality across the splenium.
Given the lack of mass effect typi...
Article
Bardet-Biedl syndrome
Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), previously known as the Laurence-Moon-Bardet-Biedl syndrome (LMBBS), is a rare autosomal recessive hereditary condition.
Clinical presentation
The clinical spectrum includes:
retinal anomalies: similar to that of retinitis pigmentosa
intellectual disability
rena...
Article
Bare orbit sign (sphenoid wing)
The bare orbit sign, is described as a characteristic appearance of the orbit, seen when the innominate line is absent. The innominate line is a projection of the greater wing of the sphenoid, and its absence or destruction is responsible for this appearance.
It is the classical frontal radiogr...
Article
Barkovich classification of focal cortical dysplasia
Barkovich classifies focal cortical dysplasias among the his extensive classification system for malformations of cortical development, distributing them as follows:
Type I and type IIb (transcortical dysplasia - Taylor type with balloon cells) as non-neoplastic malformations due to abnormal ne...
Article
Barrow classification of caroticocavernous fistulae
Barrow caroticocavernous fistula classification divides caroticocavernous fistulas into direct (type A) or indirect (types B-D). This classification was proposed by Barrow et al. in 1985 1 and at the time of writing (mid-2016) remains the most widely used system for describing caroticocavernous ...
Article
Basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of grey matter nuclei in the deep aspects of the brain that is interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalami and brainstem.
In a strict anatomical sense, it contains three paired nuclei that together comprise the corpus striatum:
caudate nucleus
lentiform nucl...
Article
Basal ganglia and thalamus signal abnormalities
Basal ganglia and thalamus signal abnormalities occur in a wide variety of conditions. Ischemia/hypoxia, metabolic disorders and toxins, particularly those that affect the respiratory chain, have a predilection for affecting the basal ganglia as they are highly metabolically active.
They can b...
Article
Basal ganglia calcification
Basal ganglia calcification is common and is seen in approximately 1% of all CT scans of the brain, depending on the demographics of the scanned population. It is seen more frequently in older patients and is considered a normal incidental and idiopathic finding in an elderly patient but should ...
Article
Basal ganglia hemorrhage
Basal ganglia hemorrhage is a common form of intracerebral hemorrhage, and usually as a result of poorly controlled long-standing hypertension. The stigmata of chronic hypertensive encephalopathy are often present (see cerebral microhemorrhages).
Other sites of hypertensive hemorrhages are the ...
Article
Basal ganglia restricted diffusion
Restricted diffusion in the basal ganglia (and thalami) is seen in a variety of conditions, often associated with other signal abnormality of the basal ganglia. Care should be taken to confirm that increased signal on DWI actually represents restricted diffusion rather than merely T2 shine throu...
Article
Basal ganglia T1 hyperintensity
There are many causes of basal ganglia T1 hyperintensity, but the majority relate to deposition of T1-intense elements within the basal ganglia such as:
calcium
idiopathic calcification
calcium and phosphate abnormalities
hepatic failure
acquired non-wilsonian hepatocerebral degeneration
W...
Article
Basal ganglia T1 hypointensity
Hypointensity on T1 weighted images of the basal ganglia, as a general rule is in itself of limited value, and should be correlated with T2 signal, which is usually more informative. Most causes of T2 hyperintensity in the basal ganglia will result on T1 hypointensity (most are afterall due to e...
Article
Basal ganglia T2 hyperintensity
The causes of basal ganglia T2 hyperintensity can be remembered using the mnemonic LINT:
lymphoma
ischemia
hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy
venous infarction (internal cerebral vein thrombosis)
neurodegenerative / metabolic
autoimmune encephalitis (e.g. anti-D2 dopamine antibody encephaliti...
Article
Basal ganglia T2 hypointensity
Basal ganglia T2 hypointensities can be caused by any of the following and is commonly remembered using the mnemonic ChOMP.
childhood hypoxia
old age
multiple sclerosis
Parkinson disease: more in globus pallidus
Parkinson-plus syndrome: more in putamen
deoxyhemoglobin of hemorrhage
hemosi...
Article
Basal ganglia T2 hypointensity (mnemonic)
The commonest causes of basal ganglia T2 hypointensity can be recalled using the following mnemonic:
ChOMP
Mnemonic
Ch: childhood hypoxia
O: old age
M: multiple sclerosis
P: Parkinson's disease, more in globus pallidus
Article
Basal nucleus of Meynert
The basal nucleus of Meynert, also known as the nucleus basalis of Meynert, is formed by a group of cells that lies in the substantia innominata. It is rich in acetylcholine and its degeneration has been correlated to Alzheimer disease. It lies anterior to the anterior commissure.
Article
Basal vein of Rosenthal
The basal veins, also known as the veins of Rosenthal, are paired, paramedian veins which originate on the medial surface of the temporal lobe and run posteriorly and medially. Each vein passes lateral to the midbrain through the ambient cistern to drain into the vein of Galen with the internal ...
Article
Base of the skull
The base of the skull (or skull base) forms the floor of the cranial cavity and separates the brain from the structures of the neck and face.
Gross anatomy
The base of the skull is a bony diaphragm composed of a number of bones - from anterior to posterior:
frontal bone
ethmoid bone
sphenoi...
Article
Basilar artery
The basilar artery is part of the posterior cerebral circulation. It arises from the confluence of the left and right vertebral arteries at the base of the pons as they rise towards the base of the brain.
Summary
origin: vertebral artery confluence
course: ventral to pons in the pontine ciste...
Article
Basilar artery aneurysm
Basilar artery aneurysms are less common than anterior circulation aneurysms, and rupture less frequently, but their critical location necessitates careful evaluation.
Radiographic features
CT
may present as a lobulated hyperattenuating structure anterior to the mid brain
rupture of a basil...
Article
Basilar artery fenestration
Basilar artery fenestration (or more simply, basilar fenestration) is the most common intracranial arterial fenestration. It refers to duplication of a portion of the artery, thought to occur due to failed fusion of plexiform primitive longitudinal neural arteries 4. Its reported prevalence is h...
Article
Basilar artery hypoplasia
Basilar artery hypoplasia is a rare vascular anomaly of the basilar artery.
Pathology
Associations
Basilar artery hypoplasia is usually accompanied by one or more fo the following:
persistent carotid-vertebrobasilar anastomoses
hypoplastic V4 segments of the vertebral arteries
unilateral o...
Article
Basilar fractures of the skull
Basilar fractures of the skull, also known as base of skull fractures, are a common form of skull fracture, particularly in the setting of severe traumatic head injury, and involve the base of the skull. They may occur in isolation or often in continuity with skull vault (calvarial) fractures or...
Article
Basilar invagination
Basilar invagination, also called basilar impression, is a congenital or acquired craniocervical junction abnormality where the tip of the odontoid process projects above the foramen magnum.
Terminology
The terms basilar invagination and basilar impression are often used interchangeably becau...
Article
Basilar invagination (mnemonic)
A mnemonic to help recall the causes of basilar invagination is:
PF ROACH
Mnemonic
P: Paget disease of bone
F: fibrous dysplasia
R: rheumatoid arthritis, rickets
O: osteogenesis imperfecta, osteomalacia
A: achondroplasia
C: Chiari I and Chiari II, cleidocranial dysostosis
H: hyperparath...
Article
Basilar venous plexus
The basilar venous plexus lies between the endosteal and visceral layers of the dura on the inner surface of the clivus and connects numerous regional venous structures:
superiorly
cavernous sinuses (superolaterally)
superior petrosal sinuses (superolaterally)
intercavernous sinuses (superio...
Article
Basion
The basion is the median (midline) point of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. The apical ligament attaches to it.
It is one of the skull landmarks, craniometric points for radiological or anthropological skull measurement.
Clinical importance
Various lines and measurements using the ...
Article
Basion-axial interval
The basion-axial interval (BAI) is the horizontal distance between the basion and the posterior cortex of the axis, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries.
It is the distance (in mm) between the basion and the superior extension of the posterior cortical margin of the ...
Article
Basion-dens interval
The basion-dens interval (BDI) is the distance between the basion and the tip of the dens, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries.
It is the distance from the most inferior portion of the basion to the closest point of the superior aspect of the dens in the median (mid...
Article
Basis pontis
The basis pontis, or basilar/basal part of the pons, refers to the ventral portion of the pons, which contains white matter fibers of the corticospinal tract.
Related pathology
lacunar infarct in this region may result in pure motor hemiparesis, ataxic hemiparesis, or dysarthria-clumsy hand sy...
Article
Battle sign (base of skull fracture)
Battle sign is an eponymous term given to mastoid ecchymosis (bruising of the scalp overlying the mastoid process) and is strongly suggestive of a base of skull fracture, most commonly a petrous temporal bone fracture.
History and etymology
Mr William Henry Battle (1855-1936) was an English s...
Article
Bat wing 4th ventricle
Bat wing 4th ventricle sign refers to the morphology of the fourth ventricle in the Joubert anomaly and related syndromes. The absence of a vermis with apposed cerebellar hemispheres gives the fourth ventricle an appearance reminiscent of a bat with its wings outstretched.
It is best demonstrat...
Article
Behavioral variant frontotemporal lobar degeneration
Behavioral variant frontotemporal lobar degeneration (bvFTLD), also known as behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia, is one of the clinical neurodegenerative diseases associated with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD).
Terminology
In the older literature, it is also referred to as P...
Article
Behçet disease
Behçet disease is a multisystemic and chronic inflammatory vasculitis of unknown etiology.
Epidemiology
The mean age at which Behçet disease occurs is 20-30 years. The disease is most prevalent in the Mediterranean region, Middle East and East Asia. The highest incidence has been reported in T...
Article
Behçet disease (CNS manifestations)
CNS manifestations of Behçet disease, also known as neuro-Behçet disease, corresponds to the neurological involvement of the systemic vasculitis Behçet disease and has a variety of manifestations.
For a discussion of the disease, in general, please refer to Behçet disease article.
Epidemiolo...
Article
Bell palsy
Bell palsy, also known as idiopathic peripheral facial paralysis, is characterized by rapid onset facial nerve paralysis, often with resolution in 6-8 weeks. As there are numerous causes of facial nerve palsy, many acute in onset, it is currently a diagnosis of exclusion supported by a typical p...
Article
Benedikt syndrome
Benedikt syndrome, or paramedian midbrain syndrome, is a midbrain stroke syndrome that involves the fascicles of the oculomotor nerve and the red nucleus.
Clinical presentation
ipsilateral CN III palsy 1-4
crossed hemiataxia 1-4
crossed choreoathetosis 1-4
Pathology
It is usually caused by...
Article
Benign enhancing foramen magnum lesion
Benign enhancing foramen magnum lesions, also described as high signal lesions, have been anecdotally seen by radiologists for years but only recently described as an incidental finding on 3D FLAIR MRI in a typical location in the foramen magnum just posterior to the intradural vertebral artery....
Article
Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid space in infancy
Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces in infancy (BESS or BESSI) also known as benign external hydrocephalus (BEH) is, as per the name, a benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces in infants. It usually involves the frontal lobe subarachnoid spaces, and it is characterized clinically...
Article
Benign metastasizing meningioma
Benign metastasizing meningiomas are a rare occurrence, encountered as a complication of a tiny fraction of all meningiomas diagnosed. It refers to spread of the tumor via metastases to distant sites, analogous to benign metastasizing leiomyoma from uterine fibroids.
Epidemiology
The incidenc...
Article
Benign metastasizing tumors
There are a number of benign metastasizing tumors:
benign metastasizing meningioma 1,2
benign metastasizing leiomyoma 3
primary adenoma of thyroid 4
giant cell tumor of bone 5
Article
Benign notochordal cell tumor
Benign notochordal cell tumors are vertebral lesions that are usually asymptomatic and discovered incidentally on imaging of the head or spine. As this is a poorly-recognized entity, it can often be confused with aggressive vertebral lesions, such as a chordoma, when it is seen on imaging.
Term...
Article
Benign oligemia
Benign oligemia occurs when the brain's ability to autoregulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) by vasodilation is exceeded and cerebral blood flow begins to reduce. If this reduction is left unchecked, eventually neurological dysfunction and eventual infarction will occur.
There is, however, a wind...
Article
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) is one of the most common causes of vertigo. It occurs secondary to change in posture and typically is associated with nystagmus. The etiology is thought to be due to changes of position of the otoliths in the inner ear, most commonly into the posterio...
Article
Benign regressive post-infectious neurological disorders
Benign regressive post-infectious neurological disorders (BRPINDs) refer to a group of neurological disorders and must be differentiated from the more malignant and progressive post-infectious neurological disorders such as SSPE (subacute sclerosing panencephalomyelitis) or rubella panencephalit...
Article
Beta-propeller protein-associated neurodegeneration
Beta-propeller protein-associated neurodegeneration (BPAN) is a rare subtype of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation disease (NBIA).
It was previously known as static encephalopathy with neurodegeneration in childhood (SENDA), but it was renamed after the underlying genetic abnormalit...
Article
Betz cells
Betz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the primary motor cortex. They are some of the largest in the central nervous system, sometimes reaching 100 µm in diameter and send their axons down the corticospinal tracts to the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord.
...
Article
Bicaudate index
The bicaudate index is the ratio of width of two lateral ventricles at the level of the head of the caudate nucleus to distance between outer tables of skull at the same level. It can be a useful marker of ventricular volume and in the diagnosis of hydrocephalus.
Article
Bickers Adams Edwards syndrome
Bickers Adams Edwards syndrome is a rare x-linked disorder with profound intellectual disability, adducted thumb and large head which is comprising of a constellation of congenital CNS anomalies including :
congenital aqueductal stenosis
corpus callosum agenesis
absence of the medullary pyra...
Article
Bickerstaff encephalitis
Bickerstaff encephalitis is a rare immune-mediated condition believed to be one of a number of conditions sharing a similar immunological mechanism, and collectively termed anti-GQ1b IgG antibody syndrome.
Clinical presentation
Bickerstaff encephalitis is often seen following varicella zoste...
Article
Biffl scale for blunt cerebrovascular injury
The Biffl scale or grade illustrates the spectrum of blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) seen on angiography (both CTA and DSA). Some authors refer to the grading scale as the Denver scale, which is not to be confused with the Denver criteria, a series of clinical indications to screen for blunt...
Article
Bifid postcentral gyrus sign
The bifid postcentral gyrus sign, also known as the pars deflection sign, is a landmark useful for identifying the central sulcus on cross-sectional imaging.
The medial aspect of the postcentral gyrus splits in two before meeting the interhemispheric fissure. The two legs straddle the pars marg...
Article
Big black brain
Big black brain is a radiologic pattern unique to infants and toddlers in the context of traumatic brain injury, most frequently due to abusive head trauma.
The CT presentation is a parenchymal hypodensity and uniform loss of gray-white differentiation in the entire hemisphere, associated with...
Article
Bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria
Bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria (BFPP) is a rare genetic condition consisting of extensive bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria.
As is the case with many areas of medicine transitioning from phenotypical to molecular/genetic definitions, it has been postulated what bilateral frontopari...
Article
Bilateral megalencephaly
Bilateral megalencephaly refers to megalencephaly affecting both cerebral hemispheres.
Pathology
Associations
achondroplasia
acromegaly
Alexander disease
Canavan disease
mucopolysaccharidoses
neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)
Proteus syndrome
Tay-Sachs disease
tuberous sclerosis (TS)
va...
Article
Bilateral middle cerebellar peduncle lesions
Involvement of both middle cerebellar peduncles is uncommon, but has a relatively long list of differential diagnoses, including 1:
neurodegenerative diseases
multiple systemic atrophy (MSA)
olivopontocerebellar atrophy
Shy-Drager syndrome
spinocerebellar atrophy
metabolic diseases
adre...
Article
Bilateral temporal lobe T2 hyperintensity
Bilateral temporal lobe T2 hyperintensity refers to hyperintense signal involving the temporal lobes on T2 weighted and FLAIR imaging. It is a common finding on brain MRI and a wide range of differentials should be considered 1.
Causes include:
neurodegenerative disease
frontotemporal dementi...
Article
Bilateral thalamic glioma
Bilateral thalamic gliomas are rare but characteristic low-grade astrocytomas that occur in both children and young adults.
Clinical presentation
Presentation may vary with age. Young children with bilateral thalamic glioma often have signs of increased intracranial pressure and movement disor...
Article
Bilateral thinning of the parietal bones
Bilateral thinning of the parietal bones, also known as biparietal osteodystrophy, is an uncommon, slowly progressive acquired disease of middle-aged people with slight female predilection. It is typically an incidental finding.
Pathology
The etiology is unknown but is thought to be an age-re...
Article
Bill bar
Bill bar is a bony anatomical landmark that divides the superior compartment of the internal acoustic meatus into an anterior and posterior compartment. Anterior to Bill bar, in the anterior superior quadrant, are the facial nerve (CN VII) and nervus intermedius, and posterior to it, in the post...
Article
Bing-Neel syndrome
Bing-Neel syndrome is an extremely rare neurological complication of Waldenström macroglobulinemia where there is malignant lymphocyte infiltration into the central nervous system (CNS).
Epidemiology
The exact incidence is unknown, however, in one study of patients with Waldenström macroglobul...
Article
Biotin deficiency
Biotin deficiency is very rare. Biotin is a vitamin which acts as an enzymatic cofactor with a key role in energy production and the synthesis of fats. Biotin is present in a diverse range of cereals, nuts, seeds and eggs. Hence, true deficiency is unusual. It has been observed in the following ...
Article
Biotinidase deficiency
Biotinidase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive condition in which the body is unable to break down the conjugated form of biotin (vitamin B7), resulting in low levels of bioavailable biotin, and clinical biotin deficiency.
Epidemiology
Profound deficiency (<10% of normal level) is estima...
Article
Biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease
Biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease (BTBGD) is a rare neurometabolic syndrome caused by defective thiamine transporter 2 (THTR2) activity due to mutations in the solute carrier family 19 member 3 gene (SLC19A3).
Epidemiology
The presentation of biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ga...
Article
Birth trauma
Birth trauma (a.k.a. birth injury) relates to those conditions caused by both physical/mechanical and hypoxic injuries.
Epidemiology
Birth trauma occurs in ~5 per 1000 births 2.
Risk factors
asphyxia
breech presentation
shoulder dystocia
instrument delivery
macrosomia
obstructed labor
...
Article
Bithalamic lesions
Bilateral thalamic lesions are usually seen in combination with basal ganglia, white matter and sometimes cortical lesions. Symmetrical bilateral involvement of the thalami has a broad differential diagnosis:
vascular
deep cerebral vein thrombosis and dural venous sinus thrombosis:
internal c...
Article
Bladder neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy of the bladder is complex, described here is a summary of the co-ordination of micturition.
The bladder acts as a reservoir normally storing 400-500 mL of urine under low pressure (<15 cmH2O) before voluntary voiding can occur at a socially-convenient time. Bladder filling and empt...
Article
Blake's pouch cyst
Blake's pouch cyst is a cystic appearing structure that represents posterior ballooning of the inferior medullary velum into the cisterna magna, below and posterior to the vermis, that communicates with an open fourth ventricle. It is caused by a failure of the regression of Blake's pouch second...
Article
Blend sign (brain)
The blend sign refers to a CT appearance of early intracranial hematoma growth. It is defined as blending of a hypoattenuating area and a hyperattenuating region with a well-defined margin.
Article
Blepharospasm
Blepharospasm is a type of focal dystonia where there is involuntary eyelid closure due to overactivity of muscles around the eyes, particularly orbicularis oculi.
It is categorized into:
primary (common)
cause unable to be identified
secondary
cause can be established such as 1
underlyin...
Article
Blood-brain barrier
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) forms a physical resistance to the passage of lipophobic substances from cerebral capillaries into the brain and is a key reason why there is no CSF enhancement following intravenous contrast media on CT and MRI.
Gross anatomy
The blood-brain barrier is formed by ...
Article
Blood supply of the meninges
The blood supply of the meninges generally concerns the blood supply of the outer layer of dura mater rather than the inner layer of dura mater, arachnoid or pia mater which do not require a large blood supply. There are several arteries that supply the dura in the anterior, middle, and posterio...
Article
Blumcke classification of focal cortical dysplasia
Blumcke et al. proposed the most recent (2011) 2 and now widely adopted consensus classification system for focal cortical dysplasia, which shares many features with the previously described classifications system by Palmini (2004) and Barkovich (2005).
Unfortunately, as is the case with many ...
Article
Blunt cerebrovascular injury
Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI), sometimes called blunt cervicovascular injury or blunt carotid and vertebral artery injury, refers to a spectrum of injuries to the cervical carotid and vertebral arteries due to blunt trauma.
Epidemiology
It is often part of multi-trauma with a significant...
Article
Bochdalek's flower basket
Bochdalek's flower basket is the eponymous name for the incidental finding of protrusion of the choroid plexus through the foramina of Luschka. This is a relatively common finding.
It is an important normal variant to recognize as the presence of protruding calcified choroid tissue in the fourt...
Article
BOLD imaging
Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) imaging is the standard technique used to generate images in functional MRI (fMRI) studies, and relies on regional differences in cerebral blood flow to delineate regional activity.
Blood flow in the brain is highly locally controlled in response to oxy...
Article
Boomerang sign (disambiguation)
Boomerang sign may refer to:
boomerang sign (peroneus brevis tear)
boomerang sign (medial meniscal tear)
boomerang sign (splenium)
History and etymology
Boomerang is of course a curved projectile used originally by the Australian Aborigines, one of its various uses was as a hunting weapon 1.
Article
Boomerang sign (splenium)
The boomerang sign refers to a boomerang-shaped region of cytotoxic edema in the splenium of the corpus callosum typically seen in cytotoxic lesions of the corpus callosum (CLOCCs) 1-4.
See also
boomerang sign in peroneus brevis split syndrome
boomerang sign in horizontal meniscal flap tear
Article
Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas
The Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF) groups these lesions into three types based upon the site of venous drainage and the presence or absence of cortical venous drainage. It was first proposed in 1995 1. At the time of writing (July 2016), it is probably less popular ...
Article
Boston criteria for cerebral amyloid angiopathy
The Boston criteria were first proposed in 1995 in order to standardize the diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) 1. They comprise of combined clinical, imaging and pathological parameters.
The criteria are divided into four tiers and are as 3,4:
definite CAA
full post-mortem examin...
Article
Bouthillier classification of internal carotid artery segments
Alain Bouthillier et al. described a seven segment internal carotid artery (ICA) classification system in 1996 1. It remains the most widely used system for describing ICA segments.
A helpful mnemonic for remembering ICA segments is:
C'mon Please Learn Carotid Clinical Organizing Classificati...
Article
Brachial plexus injuries
Brachial plexus injuries are a spectrum of upper limb neurological deficits secondary to partial or complete injury to the brachial plexus, which provides the nerve supply of upper limb muscles.
Clinical presentation
Trauma, usually by motor vehicle accidents, involves severe traction on the ...
Article
Brachial plexus root subdivisions (mnemonic)
Mnemonics for brachial plexus root subdivisions include:
Rad Techs Drink Cold Beer
Robbie T Drinks Cold Beer
Rugby Teams Drink Cold Beers
Reach To Drink Cold Beer
Read That Damn Cadaver Book
Really Tired, Don't Care Now (nerve instead of branch)
Red Toucans Don't Come Back
Mnemonic
Whe...
Article
Bracket sign (pars marginalis)
The bracket sign of the pars marginalis, also known as the pars bracket sign, refers to the appearances of the superior most extent of the pars marginalis of the cingulate sulcus on axial imaging. It forms two roughly symmetric brackets, open anteriorly. The next sulcus anteriorly is the central...
Article
Bracket sign (pericallosal lipoma)
The bracket sign refers to a radiographic appearance seen with the tubulonodular variety of pericallosal lipoma. It reflects calcification seen at the periphery of the midline lipoma. It is best seen on coronal imaging and historically was identified on frontal radiographs.
It should not be con...
Article
Brain
The brain is the vital neurological organ composed of:
cerebrum
diencephalon
brainstem
midbrain
pons
medulla
cerebellum
The brain is housed in the skull and bathed in cerebrospinal fluid. It is continuous with the cervical spinal cord at the cervicomedullary junction.
Article
Brain abscess
Brain abscess is a potentially life-threatening condition requiring rapid treatment, and prompt radiological identification. Fortunately, MRI is usually able to convincingly make the diagnosis, distinguishing abscesses from other ring-enhancing lesions.
Epidemiology
Demographics reflect at-ri...
Article
Brain arterial vascular territories
An understanding of brain arterial vascular territories is important in understanding stroke and complications from surgery and endovascular procedures.
Although one could be excused for thinking that within the brain, such a carefully organized organ, blood supply would be constant, the truth...
Article
Brain arteriovenous malformation
Brain arteriovenous malformations are type of intracranial high-flow vascular malformation composed of enlarged feeding arteries, a nidus of vessels closely associated with the brain parenchyma through which arteriovenous shunting occurs, and draining veins.
Terminology
This article correspond...
Article
Brain death
Brain death refers to the irreversible end of all brain activity and is usually assessed clinically. Radiographic testing may be used as additional support for a clinical diagnosis of brain death, such as when clinical tests are impossible to perform, e.g. ocular trauma, precluding brainstem fun...
Article
Brain development
Brain development occurs from the three vesicles of the embryo's neural tube.
prosencephalon/forebrain
mesencephalon/midbrain
rhombencephalon/hindbrain
By approximately 4.5 to 5 menstrual weeks, the primitive neural plate has developed. The neural plate then divides into the neural crest and...