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Chest x-ray: initial review (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray review is a key competency for medical students, junior doctors and other allied health professionals. Using A, B, C, D, E is a helpful and systematic method for approaching a chest x-ray. However, before jumpin...

Chest x-ray lines and stripes

Chest x-ray lines and stripes are important to recognize on chest radiographs. Lines are usually less than 1 mm in width and are comprised of tissue outlined on either side by air and typically represent pleural-covered structures within the middle and superior mediastinum 1,2: anterior junct...

Chest x-ray: lines and tubes (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray lines and tubes can be easily assessed and should be the first thing that you look at when reviewing a chest x-ray. Assessment of their position is important, but they also give you an idea about how sick the pa...

Chest x-ray: PICC position (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray PICC (peripherally inserted central catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs. Reference article This is a summary article; we do have a more in-depth refe...

Chest x-ray (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-rays are performed frequently in the assessment of a vast number of sick (and potentially very sick) patients. A chest x-ray can be performed in the radiology department (usually with the patient standing up) or b...

Chlamydia pneumonia

Chlamydia pneumonia is a form of atypical pneumonia. Pathology It is caused be the organism Chlamydophila pneumoniae (a species of Chlamydophila) which is an obligate intracellular bacterium that infects humans. Radiographic features CT chest Non specific with overlap of features with pne...

Chrispin-Norman scoring system for cystic fibrosis

The Chrispin-Norman score is used to provide a summative assessment of structural lung changes in patients with cystic fibrosis on plain chest radiographs. It is useful to monitor disease progression or treatment response and can be used to compare between different patients in research studies...

Christmas inspired signs

There are many signs in radiology that are related to Christmas: snowcap sign in avascular necrosis snowman sign in total anomalous pulmonary venous return in pituitary macroadenomas snowstorm appearance in complete hydatidiform and testicular microlithiasis holly leaf sign in calcified pl...

Chronic aspiration pneumonia

Chronic aspiration pneumonia is a form of aspiration pneumonia according time of onset. This can include changes caused by microaspiration or macroaspiration of oro-gastric content through time. Pathology This results from repeated passage of food material, gastro-esophageal reflux content and...

Chronic beryllium lung disease

Chronic beryllium lung disease (CBD) or sometimes just simply known as berylliosis refers to lung changes that can be seen with prolonged exposure to beryllium which is an alkaline earth metal that is used in many different industrial applications. Epidemiology It is reported to occur in 2-5% ...

Chronic bilateral airspace opacification (differential)

Chronic bilateral airspace opacification is a subset of the differential diagnosis for airspace opacification. An exhaustive list of all possible causes of chronic bilateral airspace opacities is long, but a useful framework is as follows: inflammatory sarcoidosis granulomatosis with polyangi...

Chronic bronchitis

Chronic bronchitis (CB) is most commonly defined as the presence of productive cough for three months in two successive years in a patient in whom other causes of chronic cough, such as tuberculosis, lung cancer and heart failure, have been excluded. It can be an important pathological component...

Chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis

Chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis (CCPA) is considered the most common form of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. In untreated cases, this may progress to chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis.

Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia

Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia (CEP) is an idiopathic condition characterized by the alveoli filling with an inflammatory, eosinophil-rich infiltrate. Classically on imaging, it appears as chronic consolidation with upper zone and peripheral predominance. Epidemiology Most patients are middle ...

Chronic granulomatous disease

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) refers to heterogeneous group of inherited immune deficiency disorders characterized by the inability to destroy phagocyted catalase positive bacteria due to lack of NADPH oxidase which results in formation of granulomas in different tissues. Epidemiology It...

Chronic granulomatous disease (pulmonary manifestations)

Pulmonary manifestations of chronic granulomatous disease can be seen approximately 80% of cases of chronic granulomatous disease, which is a disease characterized by multiple bacterial and fungal infections occurring as a result of a defect in the gene that encodes NADPH oxidase. The most comm...

Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis (CHP) refers to hypersensitivity pneumonitis where there is radiological evidence of fibrosis and represents the end-stage of repeated or persistent pneumonitis 7. Radiographic features CT High-resolution CT of the chest typically reveals indistinct centri...

Chronic interstitial pneumonitis

Chronic interstitial pneumonitis is a broad descriptive term where an interstitial pneumonia has a prolonged course. It can arise of a range of etiologies. The term does not usually imply a specific radiographic pattern and includes UIP, NSIP or other pattern. As a general rule there is little o...

Chronic lung allograft dysfunction

Chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD) is a clinical spirometric diagnosis characterized by an irreversible decline in the FEV1 of 20% or more relative to the highest post-transplant baseline representing one of the significant limitations in the survival of post-lung transplant patients. It ...

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represents a spectrum of obstructive airway diseases. It includes two key components which are chronic bronchitis-small airways disease and emphysema. Epidemiology The most common cause has historically been, and unfortunately continues to be, smok...

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA) is a group of chronic aspergillosis found in non-immunocompromised patients with prior or current lung disease (e.g. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, mycobacteriosis or conditions such as diabetes). It can manifest as several forms 1. chronic cavitar...

Chronic pulmonary embolism

Chronic pulmonary emboli are mainly a consequence of incomplete resolution of pulmonary thromboembolism. Radiographic features CTPA vascular CT signs include direct pulmonary artery signs complete obstruction partial obstruction eccentric thrombus calcified thrombus - calcific pulmonary ...

Chronic suppurative lung disease

Chronic suppurative lung disease (CSLD) refers to a group of conditions which includes: cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis primary ciliary dyskinesia This term is usually used in the context of pediatric patients.

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is a distinct subgroup of pulmonary hypertension that most frequently develops following massive or repeated pulmonary embolism. Terminology The term CTEPH should be used for patients with chronic thromboembolic disease and pulmonary hypert...

Chronic unilateral airspace opacification (differential)

Chronic unilateral airspace opacification is a subset of the differential diagnoses for airspace opacification. An exhaustive list of all possible causes of chronic unilateral airspace opacities is long, but a useful framework is as follows: neoplastic post obstructive lymphoma lymphocytic ...

Chylothorax

A chylothorax refers to the presence of chylous fluid in the pleural space often as a result of obstruction or disruption to the thoracic duct. It may be congenital or acquired. Pathology Chylothoraces may present with variable pleural fluid appearance and biochemical characteristics; they are...

Cicatrisation atelectasis

Cicatrisation atelectasis is a form of lung atelectasis which occurs as a result of scarring or fibrosis that reduces lung expansion. Common etiologies include granulomatous disease, necrotizing pneumonia and radiation fibrosis. The term is closely related to cicatrisation collapse when an enti...

Circumflex aorta

Circumflex aorta is a rare aortic arch anomaly caused by retroesophageal crossing of the aorta to the contralateral side. A vascular ring is formed when a ductus or ligamentum arteriosum contralateral to the aortic arch connects the descending aorta to the pulmonary artery. Clinical presentatio...

Clagett thoracotomy

A Clagett thoracotomy is a three stage procedure performed for treatment severe empyema and involves the resection of a posterolateral lower rib and the formation of an open window in the lateral aspect of the chest to allow continuous drainage and irrigation of the cavity with antibiotic soluti...

Clear cell tumor of the lung

Clear cell tumors of the lung are rare benign pulmonary neoplasms that contain an abundant amount of glycogen. It is often classified under the spectrum of perivascular epithelioid cell tumors (PEComas). Radiographic features Usually seen as a rounded, smooth-walled, and peripheral parenchymal...

Coal workers' pneumoconiosis

Coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP) is an occupational disease (type of pneumoconiosis) caused by exposure to coal dust free of silica (washed coal). Histologically, CWP is classified according to disease severity into simple (presence of coal macules) and complicated (with progressive massive fi...

Coarctation of the aorta

Coarctation of the aorta (CoA) refers to a narrowing of the aortic lumen. Epidemiology Coarctations account for between 5-8% of all congenital heart defects. They are more frequent in males, M:F ratio of ~2-3:1. Clinical presentation Varies accordingly to the degree of stenosis and the assoc...

Coccidioidomycosis

Coccidioidomycosis refers to an infection caused by the dimorphic fungus Coccidioides spp, usually localised to the lungs. This disease is not to be confused with the similarly named paracoccidioidomycosis. Epidemiology The most common forms of Coccidioides spp are Coccidioides immitis and Coc...

Coin lesion (lung)

Coin lesion refers to a round or oval, well-circumscribed solitary pulmonary lesion. It is usually 1-5 cm in diameter and calcification may or may not be present 1,3. Typically but not always the patient is asymptomatic 1. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis for such lesions is ...

Collar sign in diaphragmatic rupture

The collar sign, also called the hourglass sign, is a helpful sign for diagnosis of diaphragmatic rupture on coronal or sagittal CT/ MR images and barium studies. It refers to a waist-like or collar-like appearance of herniated organs at the level of the diaphragm. See also dependent viscera s...

Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema

Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema (CPFE) are a possible new addition to a growing list of smoking-related lung disease characterized by the coexistence of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) or nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP) with emphysema in smokers. Epidemiology It typicall...

Comet tail sign (chest)

The comet tail sign is a finding that can be seen on CT scans of the chest. It consists of a curvilinear opacity that extends from a subpleural "mass" toward the ipsilateral hilum. The comet tail sign is produced by the distortion of vessels and bronchi that lead to an adjacent area of round ate...

Common variable immunodeficiency

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a condition that is associated with an impaired immune system. It is considered the most common symptomatic primary immunodeficiency, and is characterized by recurrent respiratory tract infections. Clinical presentation The commonest presentation is t...

Common variable immunodeficiency (pulmonary manifestations)

Pulmonary manifestations of common variable immunodeficiency can be variable. The respiratory system is one of the most commenly affected systems in common variable immunodeficiency. Radiographic disease spectrum CT chest bronchiectasis with interstitial lung disease (e.g. granulomatous-lymp...

Complete tracheal rings

Complete tracheal rings are a rare, isolated tracheal or tracheobronchial anomaly resulting from abnormal cartilage growth, forming a complete ring and often causing airway stenosis. Clinical presentation Clinically, it manifests as respiratory distress in infants or mild symptomatic airway co...

Computed tomography of the chest

Computed tomography (CT) of the chest is a cross-sectional evaluation of the heart, airways, lungs, mediastinum, and associated bones and soft tissues. Two key methods of image acquisition include: standard CT with 5 mm slice thickness for mediastinum and gross evaluation of lungs high-resolu...

Conditions with lower lobe predominance (mnemonic)

Mnemonics for conditions with a lower lobe predominance in chest radiology include: CIA BADAS RASCO Mnemonic CIA C: collagen vascular disease I: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis A: asbestosis BADAS B: bronchiectasis A: aspiration pneumonia D: drugs; desquamative interstitial pneumonia ...

Conditions with upper lobe predominance (mnemonic)

STEP UP: Sarcoidosis, Silicosis Tuberculosis Eosinophilic Pneumonia Pneumoconiosis UP

Congenital cardiovascular anomalies

Congenital cardiovascular anomalies are relatively common, with an incidence of up to 1% if small muscular VSDs are included. As a group, there is a much greater frequency in syndromic infants and in those that are stillborn. Clinical presentation Broadly, congenital cardiovascular anomalies ...

Congenital cystic bronchiectasis

Congenital cystic bronchiectasis is a rare entity, and as the name suggests is characterized by cystic bronchiectasis found in infancy 1. The term appears to have fallen out of favour, due to variable use in older literature. In most instances of congenital cystic bronchiectasis has what is now ...

Congenital heart disease chest x-ray (an approach)

With the advent of echocardiography, and cardiac CT and MRI, the role of chest x-rays in evaluating congenital heart disease has been largely been relegated to one of historical and academic interest, although they continue to crop up in radiology exams. In most instances a definite diagnosis ca...

Congenital high airways obstruction syndrome

Congenital high airways obstruction syndrome (CHAOS) refers to a rare, often lethal, congenital laryngotracheal condition and is primarily characterized by obstruction to the fetal upper airway. Pathology CHAOS can be of three possible types 2: complete laryngeal atresia without an esophageal...

Congenital lobar overinflation

Congenital lobar overinflation (CLO), previously called congenital lobar emphysema, is a congenital lung abnormality that results in progressive overinflation of one or more lobes of a neonate's lung. On imaging, it classically presents on chest radiographs as a hyperlucent lung segment with o...

Congenital pulmonary airway malformation

Congenital pulmonary airway malformations (CPAM) are multicystic masses of segmental lung tissue with abnormal bronchial proliferation. CPAMs are considered part of the spectrum of bronchopulmonary foregut malformations. Terminology Until recently they were described as congenital cystic adeno...

Congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia

Congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia refers to congenital dilatation of the lymphatic system. It typically presents in infancy. It may be isolated to lung or may be part of a generalised lymphangiectasia.

Congenital pulmonary venolobar syndrome

Congenital pulmonary venolobar syndrome is a condition comprised of a rare group of cardiac and pulmonary congenital abnormalities occurring variably in combination. The abnormalities include: anomalous pulmonary venous drainage particularly scimitar syndrome with hypogenic right lung pulmona...

Congenital tracheomalacia

Congenital tracheomalacia refers to a diverse group of conditions which result in a dilated trachea with increased compliance. Causes include: cystic fibrosis: seen in up to 69% of patients 4 Mounier-Kuhn syndrome: idiopathic or associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (in adults) cutis laxa (...

Congenital tracheo-esophageal fistula

Congenital tracheo-esophageal fistula is a congenital pathological communication between the trachea and esophagus. Epidemiology Tracheo-esophageal fistula and esophageal atresia have a combined incidence of approximately 1 in 3500 live births 1-3,5. There is only a minimal hereditary/geneti...

Congestive cardiac failure

Congestive cardiac failure (CCF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF), refers to the clinical syndrome caused by inherited or acquired abnormalities of heart structure and function, causing a constellation of symptoms and signs that lead to decreased quality and quantity of life. Epide...

Constrictive pericarditis

Constrictive pericarditis (or perhaps better termed pericardial constriction) is a type of pericarditis which leads to diastolic dysfunction and potentially symptoms of right heart failure. Epidemiology No single demographic is affected as there are numerous causes of constrictive pericarditi...

Continuous diaphragm sign

The continuous diaphragm sign is a chest radiograph sign of pneumomediastinum or pneumopericardium if lucency is above the diaphragm, or of pneumoperitoneum if lucency is below the diaphragm. Normally the central portion of the diaphragm is not discretely visualized on chest radiographs as it ...

COPD (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is defined as a condition characterized by persistent air flow limitation that is usually progressive and associated with an enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways...

Coracoclavicular joint

The coracoclavicular joint is a normal variant of the pectoral girdle, where the conoid tubercle of the clavicle appears enlarged or elongated, with a flattened inferior surface where it approximates the coracoid process of the scapula to form an articulation. Epidemiology More common in Asia...

Cor pulmonale

Cor pulmonale is defined as a failure of the structure and function of the right ventricle in the absence of left ventricular dysfunction. It is caused by an underlying primary disorder of the respiratory system. It has a generally chronic and slowly progressive course, although acute onset or w...

Correct chest radiograph terminology

Correct chest radiograph terminology is very helpful when describing pathology. It is especially important when describing findings to colleagues (radiologist or not), who may not be able to see the image in front of them, e.g. over the phone, or when describing an image in a radiology exam. Te...

Costal cartilage

The costal cartilages form part of the thoracic cage and anterior chest wall. There are 10 costal cartilages bilaterally, one for each of the corresponding 1st to 10th ribs, and together each forms a costochondral joint. Costal cartilages 1-7 articulate with the sternum at sternocostal joints, ...

Costal cartilage fracture

Costal cartilage fractures are fractures of the cartilage connecting the ribs anteriorly to the sternum. Epidemiology There is little published data on costal cartilage fractures. Most reported cases are in males and resulted from blunt trauma or a fall 1,2. Clinical presentation In young ch...

Costal hook sign (flail chest)

The costal hook sign is a chest x-ray feature seen in some cases of flail chest. It represents the rotation of a fractured rib along its long axis, something that is only possible if a second fracture is present along its length, even if the second fracture is not visible 1.

Costocervical trunk

The costocervical trunk is one of the branches of the second part of the subclavian artery. It arises from the posterior wall of the subclavian artery, posterior or medial to the anterior scalene muscle and courses posterosuperiorly across the suprapleural membrane where it divides into 2 branc...

Costochondral joint

The costochondral joints are the joints between each rib and its costal cartilage. They are primary cartilaginous joints. These joints represent the demarcation of the unossified and ossified part of the rib 1. The joint is held together by periosteum, with the lateral aspect of the costal ca...

Costoclavicular ligament

The costoclavicular ligament or rhomboid ligament is the major stabilising factor of the sternoclavicular joint. Gross anatomy The costoclavicular ligament binds the inferior medial clavicle (via the rhomboid fossa) to the first costal cartilage and adjacent end of the first rib. It is compose...

Costoclavicular space

The costoclavicular space is the anterior portion of the superior thoracic aperture, between the clavicle and first rib. The subclavian vessels and brachial plexus pass though the space related to the scalene muscles. Proximally, the plexus passes through the interscalene space, and distally thr...

Costovertebral joint

The costovertebral joint is an articulation between the ribs and the vertebral column. Gross Anatomy The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae via two distinctly different joints: costovertebral joint - articulation between the head of the rib and the vertebral body costotransverse joi...

Costoxiphoid ligament

The costoxiphoid ligaments, also known as the chondroxiphoid ligaments, are inconstant fibrous structures joining the anterior and posterior surfaces of the xiphoid to the respective surfaces of the adjacent seventh and, occasionally, sixth costal cartilages.

Crack lung

Crack lung is a term used to describe one of the respiratory complications of smoked crack cocaine. Clinical presentation Patients present with sympathetic hyperactivity such as tachycardia, hypertension, dilated pupils, and chest pain, productive cough, dyspnea, and hypoxemia along with fever...

Crazy paving

Crazy paving refers to the appearance of ground-glass opacity with superimposed interlobular septal thickening and intralobular septal thickening, seen on chest HRCT. It is a non-specific finding that can be seen in a number of conditions. Pathology Etiology Common causes: acute respiratory...

Croup

Croup, also called acute laryngotracheobronchitis is due to viral infection of the upper airway by parainfluenza virus or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). On imaging, although not required for the diagnosis, it classically presents with a narrowing of the subglottic airway and ballooning of t...

Crow feet sign (round atelectasis)

Crow feet sign is a characteristic, but uncommon, feature seen in round atelectasis. On CT, this is seen as linear bands radiating from a mass into adjacent lung tissue resembling the feet of a crow. This sign should not be confused with fibrotic changes occurring in the lung.

Cryptococcosis

Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, a globally distributed fungus that is commonly found in soil, especially that containing pigeon and avian droppings. Infection is acquired by inhaling spores of fungus. Epidemiology Occurs worldwide without any defined en...

Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis

Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis (CFA) is a fibrosing lung disease that is characterized by inflammation and fibrosis of the alveoli and interstitium of the lungs, favouring the subpleural and basal regions. There is some overlap in definition with the term idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis 1. By ...

Cryptogenic organising pneumonia

Cryptogenic organising pneumonia (COP) is a disease of unknown etiology characterized on imaging by multifocal ground glass opacifications and/or consolidation. A wide variety of infectious as well as noninfectious causes may result in a similar histologic pattern. Terminology Organising pneum...

CT angiogram sign (lungs)

The CT angiogram sign refers to vessels appearing prominent during a contrast enhanced CT as they traverse an airless low attenuation portion of consolidated lung. Although initially thought to be specific for bronchoalveolar carcinoma, it has now been recognised as a generic appearance provided...

CT chest (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest CT is a computed tomography examination of the thoracic cavity performed for a variety of reasons, from suspected cancer to penetrating chest trauma. A CT chest can be performed with or without IV contrast and when I...

CT guided thoracic biopsy

CT guided thoracic biopsy is usually performed for the diagnosis of suspicious lung, pleural or mediastinal lesions. It can be performed as an outpatient where patient monitoring and complications support are available. A small percentage of lung and pleural biopsies may be performed under ultr...

CT polytrauma (technique)

CT polytrauma/multitrauma, also called trauma CT, whole body CT (WBCT) or panscan, is an increasingly used investigation in patients with multiple injuries sustained after significant trauma. Clinical assessment and mechanism of injury may underestimate injury severity by 30% 8. There is some e...

Currarino-Silverman syndrome

Currarino-Silverman syndrome, also known as pectus carinatum type 2 deformity, is a rare disorder in which the patient has a high carinate chest deformity due to a premature fusion of the manubriosternal joint and sternal ossification centers. Congenital heart diseases have been described in mor...

CVC position on chest x-ray (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray CVC (central venous catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs. Reference article This is a summary article; for a more in-depth reference article see centr...

Cyanotic congenital heart disease

A number of entities can present as cyanotic congenital heart disease. These can be divided into those with increased or decreased pulmonary vascularity (pulmonary plethora): increased pulmonary vascularity total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) (types I and II) transposition of the ...

Cylindrical bronchiectasis

Cylindrical bronchiectasis, also known as tubular bronchiectasis, is the most commonly identified morphologic type of bronchiectasis where there is smooth uniform enlargement of bronchi with loss of the normal distal tapering of the airways but without focal outpouchings or tortuosity. For a ge...

Cyst

A cyst is an abnormal fluid-filled structure which is lined by epithelium; with one exception: lung cysts contain gas, not fluid. By contradistinction, a pseudocyst lacks an epithelial lining and instead has a vascular and fibrotic capsule. Cysts are extremely common and found in most organs. E...

Cystic bronchiectasis

Cystic bronchiectasis is one of the less common morphological forms of bronchiectasis. It may be present on its own or may be occur in combination with other forms of bronchiectasis. For a general discussion, please refer to the article on bronchiectasis. Radiographic features It is character...

Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive genetic disease that affects the exocrine function of the lungs, liver, pancreas, and small bowel resulting in progressive disability and multi-system failure. This article is a general discussion of the disease. Each organ system will be discussed ...

Cystic fibrosis (pulmonary manifestations)

Pulmonary manifestations of cystic fibrosis are some of the best known in cystic fibrosis (CF). This is partly because the lungs are often severely affected and the cause of significant morbidity and mortality. For general discussion of cystic fibrosis, and a discussion of its other manifestat...

Cystic hygroma

Cystic hygroma, also known as cystic or nuchal lymphangioma, refers to the cystic variety of congenital lymphangioma which, most commonly, occur in the cervicofacial regions, particularly at the posterior cervical triangle. Epidemiology They usually occur in the fetal/infantile and pediatric...

Cystic lung disease

Cystic lung disease is an umbrella term used to group the conditions coursing with multiple lung cysts. Pathology A lung cyst is a gas-filled structure with perceptible wall typically 1 mm in thickness but can be up to 4 mm. The diameter of a lung cyst is usually <1 cm. By conventional defini...

Cystic lung lesions (pediatric)

Cystic lesions in pediatric patients are usually congenital lesions and, as such, can be seen antenatally and following delivery. Pathology Etiology Congenital These congenital lesions are predominantly covered by the overarching diagnosis of bronchopulmonary foregut malformation. This is a ...

Cystic mediastinal masses

The differential diagnosis for cystic masses of the mediastinum include: bronchogenic cyst esophageal duplication cyst neuroenteric cyst pericardial cyst meningocele lymphangioma thymic cyst cystic teratoma of mediastinum cystic degeneration of an intrathoracic tumor mediastinal thorac...

Cystic (necrotic) lymph nodes

Cystic or necrotic appearing lymph nodes can be caused by a number of infectious, inflammatory or malignant conditions: Systemic squamous cell carcinoma metastases treated lymphoma leukemia plasmacytoid T-cell leukemia acute myeloid leukemia viral lymphadenitis herpes simplex lymphadenit...

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