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Shortening of the cervical canal

Shortening of the uterine cervical canal as the name implies refers to an abnormal shortening of the uterine cervical length. It is considered a sign of cervical incompetence during pregnancy and can lead to premature delivery. Pathology Etiology primary (i.e. congenital/idiopathic) secondar...

Short maxillary length

A short maxillary length can result from many congenital and acquired causes. If seen in an antenatal ultrasound scan, it is often considered to have a high association with trisomy 21 1. Congenital conditions Many conditions that can cause midfacial hypoplasia will result in a short maxillar...

Short rib polydactyly syndrome

Short rib polydactyly syndrome(s) (SRPS) comprise a rare group of severe osteochondrodysplasias. There are four major recognized types present: type I: Saldino-Noonan type type II:: Majewski type type III: Verma-Naumoff type type IV: Beemer-Langer type There may also be other very rare type...

SHORT syndrome

SHORT syndrome refers to an acronym which primarily comprises of the following features: S: short stature H: hyperextensibility of joints and/or inguinal hernia O: ocular depression R: Rieger anomaly T: teething delay In addition to these there can be numerous associated minor features whi...

Short umbilical cord

A short umbilical cord has been variably defined. Considering the mean length of the umbilical cord is 50-70 cm 1,2, a short cord in absolute terms is usually taken as one that is under 35-40 cm in length at term 1,2. Epidmiology Associations Recognized associations include chromosomal anoma...

Sirenomelia

Sirenomelia (also known as the mermaid syndrome) is a rare congenital malformation characterized by the fusion of lower limb structures. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~1 in 60,000-70,000 of pregnancies 9. There may be greater male predilection (somewhat paradoxical given the usage...

Sister Mary Joseph nodule

A Sister Mary Joseph nodule is a metastatic lesion involving the umbilicus. The most common primary source is an intra-abdominal adenocarcinoma. Epidemiology Umbilical metastases are uncommon, reportedly present in 1-3% of all intra-abdominal and/or pelvic malignancy 7. Clinical presentation ...

Sliding sign

The loss of the normal sliding sign is a dynamic sonographic sign performed during transvaginal ultrasound (TVS) of women with suspected pelvic peritoneal endometriosis. It indicates pouch of Douglas (POD) involvement and obliteration and is suggestive of deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE). ...

Small cell carcinoma of the cervix

Small cell carcinoma of the cervix is a rare histological subtype of carcinoma of the cervix. Epidemiology Small cell carcinoma is thought to account for ~0.5-6% of all uterine cervical cancers 3. Pathology It is a type of neuroendocrine tumor and is similar to pulmonary small cell carcino...

Snowstorm sign (disambiguation)

Snowstorm sign may refer to: snowstorm sign: complete hydatiform mole (ultrasound) snowstorm sign: extracapsular breast implant rupture (ultrasound) snowstorm sign: thyroid pulmonary metastases (chest radiograph)

Soft-tissue sarcoma

Soft-tissue sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin (sarcoma) that originate from the soft tissues rather than bone. They are classified on the basis of tissue seen on histology. The commoner sarcomas in the adult and pediatric population are listed below. A...

Sonographic values in obstetrics and gynecology

Obstetric and gynecological ultrasound is rampant with numerous cut off values. Some of these get revised over the years. The following list is a useful aid to refer to and revise. 1 mm rate of increase of a mean sac diameter per day in early pregnancy 2 mm generally accepted value for a thi...

Sonohysterography

Sonohysterography, also referred as saline-induced sonohysterography (SIS), is an ultrasound technique that better characterizes the uterine cavity and endometrium. It is particularly useful for evaluation of endometrial polyps. Indications fertility evaluation / recurrent pregnancy loss intr...

Specialized teratoma (ovary)

Specialized teratomas of the ovaries are a rare subtype of ovarian teratomas where there is a monodermal differentiation of tissue element. Therefore they usually contain only endodermal, ectodermal or mesodermal elements. Entities that are classified under this sub group include: struma ovari...

Squamo-columnar junction of cervix

The squamo-columnar junction (SCJ) of the cervix refers to a transitional area between squamous epithelium of the vagina and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix. This shifts in location through age from being more external to internal. Carcinoma of the cervix develops almost exclusively wi...

Squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the cervix is the most common histological subtype of cervical cancer and accounts for 80-90% of cases. Pathology Most cervical squamous cell carcinomas grow at the squamocolumnar junction (SCJ). In younger women, the SCJ is located outside the external uterine...

Squamous cell carcinoma (ovary)

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the ovary is extremely rare and usually arises in a mature cystic ovarian teratoma 2. As only parts of the lesion are composed of malignant tissue, it is difficult to diagnose malignant transformation of a teratoma preoperatively, unless invasion into adjacent st...

Stenosis of the uterine cervix

Stenosis of the uterine cervix is the pathologic narrowing of the uterine cervix. The term cervical stenosis is clinically defined as cervical narrowing that prevents the insertion of a 2.5 mm wide dilator through the cervical os. Epidemiology One-fifth of patients have a history of exposure t...

String of pearls sign (disambiguation)

String of pearls sign can refer to: string of pearls sign on an abdominal radiograph of fluid-filled dilated small bowel loops string of pearls sign on ultrasound in polycystic ovarian syndrome string of pearls sign for angiographic appearances in fibromuscular dysplasia string of pearls sig...

String of pearls sign (ovary)

The string of pearls (or beads) sign in the ovary is the ultrasound sign of multiple small (<5 mm) follicles peripherally located in the gonad. It is typically seen in polycystic ovaries, and is thought to represent abnormal accumulation of immature follicles. This morphologic appearance howeve...

Struma ovarii tumor

Struma ovarii tumor is a subtype of an ovarian teratoma and is composed entirely or predominantly of thyroid tissue and containing variable-sized follicles with colloid material. Epidemiology It accounts for 0.3-1% of all ovarian tumors and ~3% of all mature cystic teratomas 1. Clinical prese...

Subendometrial cysts

Subendometrial cysts can arise from several pathologies which include adenomyosis 2 tamoxifen-associated endometrial changes 1,3 Differential diagnosis Considerations include superiorly positioned nabothian cyst

Subendometrial halo

The subendometrial halo is a hypoechoic stripe formed at the innermost part of the myometrium directly bordering the endometrium. It is important to assess its continuity in order to rule out myometrial invasion in endometrial carcinoma. This hypoechoic line may be thickened in case of adenomyo...

Submucosal leiomyoma in the exam

Getting a film with submucosal fibroid in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for. Description Transabdominal and transvaginal pelvic ultrasound scans show an anteverted uterus with endometrium that is 7 mm wide and has a trilaminar appearance indicative of the pe...

Submucosal uterine leiomyoma

Submucosal leiomyomas of the uterus refer to a subtype of uterine leiomyoma that primarily projects into the endometrial cavity. They are least common albeit the most symptomatic type of leiomyoma. Clinical presentation Submucosal leiomyomas can be a common source of abnormal uterine bleeding ...

Subserosal leiomyoma of the uterus

Subserosal uterine leiomyoma is a subtype of uterine leiomyoma that often exophytically projects outwards from a subserosal location. While its exact definition may vary, a leiomyoma is often called subserosal if >50% of the fibroid protrudes out of the serosal surface of the uterus 2. Clinica...

Superficial perineal pouch

The superficial perineal pouch is an anatomic space below the perineal membrane in the urogenital triangle of the perineum. Gross anatomy The superficial perineal pouch is inferior (superficial) to the perineal membrane in the urogenital triangle, anterior to the transverse line between the is...

Surgical hemostatic material

Surgical hemostatic material is used to control bleeding intraoperatively and is hence frequently intentionally left in the operative bed, not to be confused with a gossypiboma which is caused by foreign material left behind in error. Its use has increased with the advent of minimally invasive s...

Surgical positions

There are various classic surgical positions for patients to be placed in for procedures, which have been adopted/repurposed for interventional radiology and some diagnostic procedures: lithotomy position Trendelenburg position reverse Trendelenburg position lateral decubitus position Litho...

Syndactyly

Syndactyly (plural: syndactylies) refers to a congenital fusion of two or more digits. It may be confined to soft tissue (soft tissue syndactyly/simple syndactyly) or may involve bone (bony syndactyly/complex syndactyly). Epidemiology The overall estimated incidence is at ~1 per 2,500 to 5,000...

T2 dark spot sign

T2 dark spot sign is an MRI appearance of endometriomas seen as a result of chronic hemorrhage. The sign is useful in differentiating a solitary endometrioma from a functional hemorrhagic ovarian cyst, as both might show high T1 signal with T2 shading. The T2 dark spot, described in the sign, ...

Tamoxifen-associated endometrial changes

The oncological agent tamoxifen has pro-oestrogenic changes on the endometrium resulting in abnormal growth with an increased prevalence of: endometrial polyps: occurs in ~8-36% of women in treated 8 endometrial hyperplasia: occurs in ~1-20% of women treated ref cystic endometrial atrophy en...

Teratoma

Teratomas are germ cell tumors that arise from ectopic pluripotent stem cells that fail to migrate from yolk sac endoderm to the urogenital ridge during embryogenesis. By definition, they contain elements from all three embryological layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm although frequently, e...

Theca lutein cyst

Theca lutein cysts (TLC), also known as hyperreactio luteinalis (HL), are a type of functional ovarian cysts. They are typically multiple and seen bilaterally. Pathology They are thought to originate due to excessive amounts of circulating gonadotrophins such as beta-hCG. Hyperplasia of the th...

Thoracic endometriosis

Thoracic endometriosis is an uncommon location for endometriosis and the main cause of catamenial pneumothorax. Epidemiology Most often occurs in the third and fourth decades of life 3. Clinical presentation Symptoms may include: catamenial pleuritic chest pain catamenial hemoptysis: when...

Tip of the iceberg sign (ovarian dermoid cyst)

Tip of the iceberg sign refers to one of the characteristic appearances of an ovarian dermoid cyst. If there are echogenic cyst contents of sebum and hair, they cause marked posterior acoustic attenuation so that only the superficial part of the cyst is seen. Just like an iceberg, you may only b...

Torsion of subserosal leiomyoma of the uterus

Torsion of subserosal leiomyoma of the uterus refers to the twisting of the attached pedicle of a pedunculated subserous leiomyoma of the uterus with subsequent ischemia, necrosis and gangrene 1. Clinical presentation acute abdominal pain GIT symptoms (e.g diarrhea) tenderness in the lower ...

Trachelectomy

Trachelectomy, also known as a cervicectomy, refers to surgical resection of the uterine cervix. It may be considered as a fertility-sparing treatment for low-stage cervical cancer. Although radical hysterectomy is routine for treatment of endometrial and more advanced cervical cancer, uterine-...

Transient abnormal myelopoiesis

Transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM) is a phenomenon that can happen in the fetuses or neonates with trisomy 21. The condition can mimic leukemia. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at ~10% of newborns with trisomy 21 3. Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound In the context of kno...

Transient physiological myometrial contraction

Transient myometrial contraction is a physiological phenomenon which may mimic focal adenomyosis Radiographic features It appears as focal low signal intensity bulge/region of the myometrium which may disappear on subsequent images or at cine MR imaging. Differential diagnosis focal adenom...

Transverse cerebellar diameter

In obstetric imaging, the fetal transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD) is often measured as an additional fetal biometric parameter. It is measured as the maximal diameter between the cerebellar hemispheres on an axial scan. The value of the transverse cerebellar diameter in mm's is considered rou...

Transverse vaginal septum

Transverse vaginal (transvaginal) septum (TVS) is a type of rare congenital uterovaginal anomaly (class II under the Rock and Adam classification). Epidemiology It is rare with a frequency of 1 in 70,000 females. Clinical presentation In the case of a complete septum, patients commonly prese...

Triploidy

Triploidy is a rare lethal chromosomal (aneupliodic) abnormality caused by the presence of an entire extra chromosomal set. Epidemiology It is considered the 3rd commonest fatal chromosomal anomaly 7. While it is thought to affect as much as 1-2% of conceptions, the vast majority are thought ...

Trisomy 22

Trisomy 22 is an aneuploidic chromosomal anomaly which is usually fatal unless in mosaic forms. Pathology Variants Duplication of the short arm (p) and a small section of the long arm (q) of chromosome 22 can give result to the cat-eye syndrome - Schmidt-Fraccaro syndrome. Radiographic featu...

True hermaphroditism

True hermaphroditism is a form of disorder of gender development. Pathology Patients with true hermaphroditism have mosaicism of 46XX and 46XY. They therefore have both ovarian and testicular tissues. Subtypes There are three forms of true hermaphroditism: unilateral true hermaphroditism ...

T-shaped uterus

T-shaped uterus refers to a specific radiographic appearance of the endometrial cavity. Pathology It is the most commonly associated abnormality from in utero diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure, seen in 31% of exposed women. It is classified as a class VII Müllerian duct anomaly. Background D...

Tubal ectopic pregnancy

Tubal ectopic pregnancy (or adnexal ectopic pregnancy) is the most common location of an ectopic pregnancy. Epidemiology It is the most common type of ectopic by far, accounting for 93-97% of cases. Pathology Although the fallopian tube has many anatomical parts, for the purposes of ectopic ...

Tubal ring sign

Tubal ring sign also referred to as bagel sign or blob sign, one of the ultrasound signs of a tubal ectopic. It comprises an echogenic ring that surrounds an unruptured ectopic pregnancy. It is said to have a 95% positive predictive value (PPV) for ectopic pregnancy. Differential diagnosis It ...

Tuberculosis (fallopian tube)

Tuberculosis of the fallopian tube is one of the most common sites of tuberculous pelvic inflammatory disease. Clinical presentation Many patients may be asymptomatic, with the disease being discovered during the workup for infertility. Signs and symptoms are often vague and can include acut...

Tuberculous pelvic inflammatory disease

Tuberculous pelvic inflammatory disease refers to pelvic inflammatory disease due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Epidemiology Genital tract involvement may be present in ~1.5% of cases of those affected with tuberculosis 4. Pathology Infection almost always results from spread from an extrag...

Tubo-ovarian abscess

Tubo-ovarian abscesses are one of the late complications of pelvic inflammatory disease. Epidemiology Risk factors Risk factors for tubo-ovarian abscesses include 15: previous pelvic inflammatory disease 16 intrauterine device multiple sexual partners diabetes mellitus immunosuppression ...

Tunnel cluster

Tunnel cluster (TC) is a type of nabothian cyst characterized by complex multicystic dilatation of the endocervical glands. Epidemiology Tunnel cluster is found in ~8% of adult women, 40% of whom are pregnant, almost exclusively multigravid women, and older than 30 years. Clinical presentatio...

Turner syndrome

Turner syndrome, also known as 45XO or 45X, is the most common of the sex chromosome abnormalities in females. Epidemiology The incidence is estimated at 1:2000-5000 of live births, although the in utero rate is much higher (1-2% of conceptions) due to a significant proportion of fetuses with...

Ultrasound guided percutaneous drainage

Ultrasound guided percutaneous drainage is one form of image guided procedure, allowing minimally invasive treatment of collections that are accessible by ultrasound study. It has several advantages and disadvantages over CT, which include: Advantages is a dynamic study, allowing greater prec...

Umbilical venous dilatation

Umbilical venous dilatation is a rare entity and often tends to occur as an isolated finding 4. Dilatation of the umbilical vein can arise from a number of pathologies: umbilical venous varix (UVV): particularly if focal fetal hydrops: a focal dilatation due to an umbilical venous varix with...

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the endometrium

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the endometrium is rare histological subtype of endometrial cancer. It is considered a high grade carcinoma, carries a poor prognosis and is often under-recognized 1. Epidemiology It is thought to represent approximately 1-9% of endometrial cancers 1,6. Pathology...

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the ovary

Undifferentiated carcinoma of the ovary is a rare type of ovarian epithelial tumor. They account for ~ 4% of ovarian cancer 2. Pathology With these tumors, cellular differentiation is not sufficient for the tumor to be categorized into serous, mucinous or other specified subtypes. Pure undiffe...

Unicornuate uterus

A unicornuate uterus or unicornis unicollis is a type of Müllerian duct anomaly (class II) characterized by a banana-shaped uterus usually draining into a single Fallopian tube. Epidemiology This type can account for ~10% (range 6-13%) of uterine anomalies and infertility is seen in ~12.5% (ra...

Ureterovaginal fistula

Ureterovaginal fistulae refer to abnormal communications between the lumina of the ureter(s) and the vagina. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with urinary incontinence through the vagina which may be accompanied by fever and chills 1. Symptoms usually begin within 2-4 weeks foll...

Urethral agenesis

Urethral agenesis (or urethral atresia) refers to a situation where there is a congenital absence of the urethra. It can be a cause of fetal obstructive uropathy. Pathology Associations prune belly syndrome 5 bladder agenesis 2 Radiographic features Antenatal ultrasound May show a dilate...

Urethral caruncle

Urethral caruncles are the most common urethral lesion in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology The lesion accounts for >90% of urethral masses in postmenopausal women 2. Clinical presentation Most women are asymptomatic, but caruncles can cause pain, dysuria or bleeding 4. On physical examinat...

Urethral diverticulum

Urethral diverticula, or urethroceles, are focal outpouchings of the urethra. They should not be confused with a ureterocele of the distal ureter. Epidemiology Urethral diverticula occur far more frequently in women than in men and are estimated to occur in 1-6% of women, especially those with...

Urogenital triangle

The urogenital triangle forms the anterior half of the diamond-shaped perineum. The triangle's corners are defined by the pubis symphysis anteriorly and the ischial tuberosities anterolaterally. The anterolateral borders are the ischiopubic rami and the posterior border is the transverse perinea...

Uterine agenesis

Uterine agenesis is the extreme of Mullerian duct anomalies (Class I) where there is a complete absence of uterine tissue above the vagina. Epidemiology The uterine agenesis-hypoplasia spectrum accounts for ~10-15% of all Müllerian duct anomalies. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation...

Uterine arteriovenous malformation

Uterine arteriovenous malformations (UAVM) result from the formation of multiple arteriovenous fistulous communications within the uterus without an intervening capillary network. Clinical presentation The presentation can vary. UAVMs can cause life-threatening massive bleeding in young women....

Uterine artery

The uterine artery is seen bilaterally and is a branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. Gross anatomy Course It runs medially in the pelvis, within the base of the broad ligament, to the outer surface of the uterus. From lateral to medial it has a descending, transverse ...

Uterine artery embolization

Uterine artery embolization (UAE) is an interventional radiological technique to occlude the arterial supply to the uterus and is performed for various reasons. History Uterine artery embolization has been practised for more than 20 years for controlling hemorrhage following delivery/abortion,...

Uterine artery embolization: MRI assessment

Uterine artery embolization (UAE) is used as an alternative to hysterectomy in selected patients and MRI assessment is key in allowing not only pre-procedure assessment but also assessing post-procedural outcome. For a general discussion of the underlying condition refer to the article on ute...

Uterine artery flow notching

Uterine artery flow notching refers to a phenomenon observed in uterine arterial Doppler ultrasound assessment. Pathology Associations The presence of notching after 22 weeks is associated with several other conditions including adverse pregnancy outcomes. These include pregnancy induced hyp...

Uterine artery pseudoaneurysm

Uterine artery pseudoaneurysm (UAP) is a rare cause of secondary postpartum hemorrhage. Clinical presentation UAP usually presents as delayed (secondary) postpartum hemorrhage, that is per vaginal bleeding which occurs more than 24 hours and up to 6 weeks postpartum. However, some reported ca...

Uterine biophysical profile

Uterine biophysical profile refers to assessment of uterus to produce a successful conception and implantation environment. Uterine scoring system for reproduction (USS) The uterine scoring system for reproduction comprises the following parameters, taken in mid-cycle: 1. endometrial thickne...

Uterine choriocarcinoma

Uterine choriocarcinomas are one of the commonest choriocarcinomas and are often associated with gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD). Epidemiology These tumors typically occur in women of childbearing age as a gestational choriocarcinoma. Most such cases present within one year of an ante...

Uterine dehiscence

Uterine dehiscence is, usually, used to refer to the process of gradual myometrial rupture without a rupture of membranes. However, the term is used synonymously with uterine rupture by some authors. It is often described in the context of C-section scar where it is also termed an incisional deh...

Uterine duplication anomalies

Uterine duplication anomalies are a group of Müllerian duct anomalies where fusion of the Müllerian duct associated structures fail to some degree: uterus didelphys: class III bicornuate uterus: class IV (second commonest duplication anomaly) septate uterus: class V (commonest duplication ano...

Uterine enlargement (differential)

Uterine enlargement can occur in a number of situations from both diffuse and focal processes. These include: gestation related events normal intrauterine pregnancy molar pregnancy - gestational trophoblastic disease postpartum uterus - still larger than usual hormonal causes exogenous h...

Uterine inversion

Uterine inversion is a rare condition in which the uterus is essentially turned inside out. There are two types: "puerperal" (within six weeks of childbirth) and "non-puerperal". The reason for uterine inversion is unclear. In the puerperal form, it is theorized that excessive traction on the um...

Uterine leiomyoma

Uterine leiomyomas also referred to as uterine fibroids, are benign tumors of myometrial origin and are the most common solid benign uterine neoplasms. Commonly an incidental finding on imaging, they rarely cause a diagnostic dilemma. There are various medical, surgical, and interventional treat...

Uterine leiomyosarcoma

Uterine leiomyosarcomas are malignant uterine tumors that arise from the myometrium. The uterus is the commonest location for a leiomyosarcoma. Epidemiology Typically, these tumors present in women in the 6th decade. They account for up to one-third of uterine sarcomas but only ~8% of all uter...

Uterine lipoleiomyoma

Uterine lipoleiomyomas result from degeneration of smooth muscle cells in an ordinary leiomyoma and represent a rare benign tumor of the uterus 1. Epidemiology Lipoleiomyomas have a reported incidence of 0.03-0.20% and are typically found in postmenopausal patients with typical uterine leiomyo...

Uterine lymphoma

Uterine lymphoma refers to involvement of the uterus with lymphoma. Some authors also place lymphoma of the uterine cervix under this group. Epidemiology It is rare condition with initial uterine involvement occurring in only 1% of patients with lymphoma 3. However, uterine involvement is more...

Uterine perforation

Uterine perforation represents a serious complication that can occur as a result of any type of intrauterine procedure or implantation. Some authors use the term uterine rupture synonymously with the term uterine perforation. Pathology Causes IUCD insertion: IUCD related uterine perforation ...

Uterine rupture

Uterine rupture is a rare but nevertheless potentially catastrophic complication that can occur in pregnancy. Epidemiology The incidence rate in pregnancy is 0.05% 6. Clinical presentation Uterine rupture is usually an acute presentation with hemodynamic instability and abdominal discomfo...

Uterine sarcoma

Uterine sarcoma is a malignant uterine tumor thats is composed of part or all sarcomatous (mesodermal) elements. They however account for a minority of all uterine malignancies (1-6% 3-4). Pathology Classification They can be broadly classified as pure or mixed 4: mixed malignant mixed Mul...

Uterine smooth muscle tumors of uncertain malignant potential

Uterine smooth muscle tumors of uncertain malignant potential (STUMP) is a recently defined entity by the World Health Organization for a heterogeneous group of uterine smooth muscle tumors that cannot be histologically diagnosed as unequivocally benign or malignant 1. See also malignant neopl...

Uterine venous plexus

The uterine venous plexus is a network of veins surrounding the uterus and has extensive anastomoses with the vaginal venous plexus inferiorly and ovarian venous plexuses laterally. Gross anatomy The uterine venous plexus lies along the lateral aspects and superior angles of the uterus within ...

Uterosacral ligament

The paired uterosacral ligaments are one of the supporting structures of the uterus. Uterosacral ligaments are not infrequently affected in cases of deep infiltrating endometriosis. Gross anatomy The paired uterosacral ligaments are extraperitoneal structures which extend posteriorly from the ...

Uterus

The uterus is a hollow, thick-walled, muscular organ of the female reproductive tract that lies in the lesser pelvis. Gross anatomy The uterus has an inverted pear shape. In the adult, it measures about 7.5 cm in length, 5 cm wide at its upper part, and nearly 2.5 cm in thickness. It weighs ...

Uterus didelphys

Uterus didelphys is a type of Müllerian duct anomaly (class III) where there is a complete duplication of uterine horns as well as duplication of the cervix, with no communication between them. Epidemiology Didelphic uteri account for approximately ~8% (range 5-11%) of Müllerian duct anomali...

VACTERL association

VACTERL is an acronym that describes a non-random constellation of congenital anomalies. It is not a true syndrome as such and is equivalent to the VATER anomaly. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is 1 in 10,000-40,000 births 3. Pathology The acronym VACTERL derives from: V: vertebral an...

VACTERL-H association

The VACTERL-H association is a rare non-random association which bears the features of the standard VACTERL association with added fetal hydrocephalus. Unlike the standard VACTERL association which is sporadic, the VACTERL-H is hereditary with both X-linked 3 and autosomal recessive 2 inheritan...

Vagina

The vagina is a midline fibromuscular tubular organ positioned in the female perineum extending superiorly from the vulva, to the cervix and uterus in the pelvis. Gross anatomy The vagina is 8-10 cm in length, extending posterosuperior from the vestibule through the urogenital diaphragm to th...

Vaginal atresia

Vaginal atresia refers to a spectrum of anomalies comprising of failure to form a part or all of the vagina. Epidemiology It is considered the second most common cause of primary amenorrhea. The estimated Incidence is at ~ 2 in 10000 women. Clinical presentation The most common symptom...

Vaginal cancer (staging)

The staging of primary vaginal cancer covers all histological subtypes and is as follows FIGO staging system stage 0: carcinoma in situ stage I: tumor confined to vagina stage II: invasion of paravaginal tissues but no extension beyond pelvic side walls stage III: extension to pelvic side w...

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