Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
618 results found
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Spinal astrocytoma
Spinal astrocytomas are the second most common spinal cord tumor, representing 40% of intramedullary tumors 3. They account for 60% of pediatric intramedullary tumors, making them the most common spinal cord tumor in children 6.
This article specifically relates to spinal astrocytomas. For a di...
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Spinal canal
The spinal canal, also known as the vertebral canal, is the cavity within the vertebral column which contains the spinal cord.
Gross anatomy
The spinal canal becomes progressively narrower from its superior opening at the foramen magnum to its inferior opening at the sacral hiatus 1. The canal...
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Spinal cord
The spinal cord is the part of the central nervous system that is found within the spinal canal of the vertebral column. The cord extends from the corticomedullary junction at the foramen magnum of the skull down to the tip of the conus medullaris within the lumbar cistern. It is lined by spinal...
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Spinal cord blood supply
The spinal cord blood supply is formed by many different vessels with an extensive collateral supply and drainage.
Arterial supply
The spinal cord is supplied by three longitudinal arteries:
single anterior spinal artery: supplies the anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord
sizable and formed...
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Spinal cord cavernous malformation
Spinal cord cavernous malformations, also known as spinal cavernomas, are vascular malformations that occur within the spinal cord.
This article specifically relates to spinal cord cavernomas. For a discussion of cerebral cavernomas and a general discussion of the pathology refer to the main ar...
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Spinal cord compression
Spinal cord compression is a surgical emergency, usually requiring prompt surgical decompression to prevent permanent neurological impairment. If the spinal roots below the conus medullaris are involved, it is termed cauda equina syndrome.
Pathology
Etiology
There are numerous causes of cord ...
Article
Spinal cord compression (summary)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Spinal cord compression is a surgical emergency and if unrecognised or untreated, can result in irreversible neurological damage and disability. If the spinal roots below the conus medullaris are involved, it is termed caud...
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Spinal cord schistosomiasis
Spinal cord schistosomiasis is a grave central nervous system form of this parasitic disease. In endemic areas, it should be included in the differential diagnosis of myelopathy, as early treatment is fundamental in the prevention of severe and irreversible injuries.
This article discusses spi...
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Spinal cord stimulator
Spinal cord stimulators, also known as dorsal column stimulators, are surgically placed devices to aid with symptom relief in individuals with chronic neurological pain (e.g. failed back syndrome, brachial plexopathy, complex regional pain syndrome).
It uses low voltage electrical current deliv...
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Spinal cord transection
Spinal cord transection, as the name implies, refers to a tear within the spinal cord as a result of a significant traumatic injury. It is an important radiological finding that can influence the decision on potential surgery in the setting of spinal trauma.
Clinical presentation
The presentat...
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Spinal dermoid cyst
Spinal dermoid cysts are uni or multilocular cystic tumors lined by squamous epithelium containing skin appendages (hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands) 6. They are congenital in origin.
Forty percent are intramedullary, and 60% are extramedullary 6.
This article specifically relate...
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Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula
Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas (SDAVF) are the most common type of spinal vascular malformation, accounting for ~70% of all such lesions.
This article specifically relates to spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas. For a discussion of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas refer to the mai...
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Spinal dura mater
The spinal dura mater is the outermost layer of the meninges that surround the spinal cord.
Gross Anatomy
The spinal dura mater is a fibrous, non-adherent, tough layer surrounding the spinal cord. It is separated from the wall of the vertebral canal by the epidural space. This space contains ...
Article
Spinal dysraphism
Spinal dysraphisms refer to a broad group of malformations affecting the spine and/or surrounding structures in the dorsum of the embryo. They are a form of neural tube defect.
Pathology
The neural tube is formed by the lengthwise closure of the neural plate, in the dorsum of the embryo.
The ...
Article
Spinal ependymoma
Spinal ependymomas are the most common spinal cord tumor overall, seen both in adult and pediatric population.
This article specifically relates to spinal cord ependymomas. For a discussion of intracranial ependymomas and for a general discussion of the pathology refer to the main article: epe...
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Spinal epidermoid cyst
Spinal epidermoid cysts are cystic tumors lined by squamous epithelium. Unlike dermoid cysts, they do not contain skin appendages (hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands). They are usually extramedullary but rarely can be intramedullary. They may be congenital or acquired.
This article ...
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Spinal epidural abscess
Spinal epidural abscess represents infection of the epidural space, located between the spinal dura mater and the vertebral periosteum. It can present with rapidly deteriorating neurological function due to compression. Imaging is best performed with MRI and emergency surgery is often required. ...
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Spinal epidural hematoma
Spinal epidural hematomas (EDH) are a rare spinal pathology which can result in serious morbidity with delayed or non-treatment. They are typically considered a surgical emergency.
Clinical presentation
The patient's symptoms and signs will depend on the location of the EDH, and degree of spi...
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Spinal epidural injection
Epidural spinal injections are one of the more frequently performed spinal interventional procedures.Three approaches to the epidural space exist:
transforaminal epidural injection
interlaminar epidural injection
cervical interlaminar epidural injection
lumbar interlaminar epidural injection...
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Spinal epidural mass
The differential diagnosis for a spinal epidural mass includes:
epidural metastasis
epidural abscess
herniated nucleus pulposus
epidural hematoma
epidural arteriovenous malformation
epidural angiolipoma
epidural lipomatosis
Article
Spinal epidural space
The spinal epidural (extradural) space is distinctly separate from and not continuous with the cranial epidural space. Its exact definition and description are contentious 3.
Gross anatomy
The spinal epidural space is located in the spinal canal between the spinal dura mater and the vertebral...
Article
Spinal fractures
Spinal fractures are usually the result of significant trauma to a normally formed skeleton or the result of trauma to a weakened spinal column. Examples include:
Jefferson fracture: ring fracture of C1
hangman fracture: bilateral pedicle or pars fracture of C2
dens fracture
flexion teardrop...
Article
Spinal fusion
Spinal fusion is a broad term to denote the joining of two or more adjacent vertebral segments. Fusion can be congenital or acquired as a direct result of disease or deliberately following spinal surgery.
Congenital fusion
Fusion of two or more adjacent segments is encountered either as an is...
Article
Spinal ganglioglioma
Spinal gangliogliomas are rare, comprising 1.1% of all spinal cord neoplasms 2. They are more frequent in children, representing 15% of intramedullary neoplasms in the pediatric age group 4.
This article specifically relates to spinal gangliogliomas. For a discussion on intracranial ganglioglio...
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Spinal hemangioblastoma
Spinal hemangioblastomas are the third most common intramedullary spinal neoplasm, representing 2-6% of all intramedullary tumors 1,4,7.
This article specifically relates to spinal hemangioblastomas. For a discussion on intracranial hemangioblastomas and a general discussion of the pathology re...
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Spinal hematoma
Spinal hematomas are a rare clinical entity and are often idiopathic. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial, lest they cause permanent neurological damage.
Identifying the location of the hematoma is important for treatment, as is distinguishing it, to the extent possible, from other entit...
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Spinal hydatid disease
Spinal hydatid disease is an uncommon manifestation of hydatid disease, caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus, or less commonly E. alveolaris or E. multilocularis, and describes a spectrum of disease involving the spinal cord, the spine, or both.
For a general discussion, and fo...
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Spinal instability neoplastic score (SINS)
The spinal instability neoplastic score (SINS) helps to assess tumor related instability of the vertebral column. It has been shown to useful in guiding the mobilization or operative management of patients with neoplastic spinal disease.
Studies have reported good inter-observer agreement among...
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Spinal interventional procedures
Back pain is a common condition that is often difficult to treat. Lumbar degenerative facet joints, lumbar disc disease and sacroiliac joint pain account for nearly 70% of cases of lower back pain.
Unfortunately, as the incidence of degenerative changes in the spine is so high (e.g. disc abnorm...
Article
Spinal meningeal cyst
Spinal meningeal cysts are diverticulae of the arachnoid or dura mater or of the nerve root sheath. They are uncommon, usually asymptomatic and typically found incidentally at MRI.
Clinical presentation
They cysts are usually asymptomatic, but if they are large, they may cause mass effect and...
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Spinal meninges
The spinal meninges (singular: meninx) are contained within the spinal canal and encase the spinal cord, spinal nerve roots and the cauda equina.
Gross anatomy
They are composed of three layers (outer to inner)
dura mater (also known as theca or pachymeninx)
arachnoid mater
pia mater
Colle...
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Spinal meningioma
Meningiomas arising from the coverings of the spinal cord are one of the two most common intradural extramedullary spinal tumors, representing 25-30% of all such tumors 2.
This article specifically relates to spinal meningiomas. For a discussion on intracranial meningiomas and a general discus...
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Spinal metastases
Spinal metastases is a vague term which can be variably taken to refer to metastatic disease to any of the following:
vertebral metastases (94%)
may have epidural extension
intradural extramedullary metastases (5%)
intramedullary metastases (1%)
Each of these are discussed separately. Below...
Article
Spinal muscular atrophy
Spinal muscular atrophy is a type of congenital neuromuscular disease affecting anterior horn cells of the brainstem and spinal cord.
Epidemiology
This disorder affects 1 in 6000-10000 infants 1.
Clinical presentation
Spinal muscular atrophy typically affects infants and young children, pres...
Article
Spinal nerve sheath tumors
Spinal nerve sheath tumors are the most common intradural extramedullary masses.
This article is an overview of spinal nerve sheath tumors. For a discussion on the epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathology and treatment/prognosis of spinal schwannomas and neurofibromas, please refer to spi...
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Spinal neurenteric cyst
Spinal neurenteric cysts are a rare type of foregut duplication cyst, accounting for ~1% of all spinal cord tumors. They are usually classified as spinal or intracranial and are associated with vertebral or CNS abnormalities respectively.
Pathology
Neurenteric cysts result from incomplete res...
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Spinal neurofibroma
Spinal neurofibromas are benign peripheral nerve sheath tumors, usually of the localized subtype.
This article specifically relates to spinal neurofibromas. For a general discussion of neurofibromas, including their epidemiology and pathology, refer to neurofibroma. For a discussion of the gene...
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Spinal paraganglioma
Spinal paragangliomas are tumors of neuroendocrine origin that rarely involve the central nervous system, usually the filum terminale and cauda equina. They are indolent and considered WHO grade I lesions 5.
Paragangliomas overall are most commonly located within the adrenal gland (pheochromoc...
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Spinal pia mater
The spinal pia mater (or pia mater spinalis) is the innermost layer of the spinal meninges. In congruence to the cranial pia being closely related to the surface of the brain, the spinal pia is closely related to the surface of the spinal cord.
Gross anatomy
The spinal pia mater is continuou...
Article
Spinal pilocytic astrocytoma
Although rare, pilocytic astrocytomas are the most common spinal cord tumors in the pediatric population.
This article specifically relates to spinal pilocytic astrocytomas. For a discussion on intracranial pilocytic astrocytomas refer to pilocytic astrocytoma. For a general discussion on spina...
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Spinal primitive neuroectodermal tumor
Spinal primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) are rare. Most cases are secondary to metastatic spread through the subarachnoid space from a primary intracranial tumor although rare cases of primary spinal PNETs have been reported.
This article specifically relates to spinal PNETs. For a discu...
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Spinal schwannoma
Spinal schwannomas are benign nerve sheath tumors within the spinal canal, typically arising from spinal nerve roots and it is the most common nerve sheath tumor of spine 11. They are one of the two most common intradural extramedullary spinal tumors, representing 15-50% of such lesions.
This a...
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Spinal stenosis
Spinal stenosis is a condition in which a portion of the spinal canal narrows to the point at which it can exert pressure on the nerves that travel through the spine.
Spinal stenosis is not to be confused with foraminal stenosis which is the narrowing of the foramina with subsequent compression...
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Spinal subarachnoid space
The spinal subarachnoid space is the space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the spine and is continuous with the intracranial subarachnoid space.
It communicates with the intracranial subarachnoid space via the foramen magnum and ends at the level of the S2 vertebra. It is a relat...
Article
Spinal subdural hematoma
Spinal subdural hematomas (SSDH) are much less common than epidural hematomas; however, progression of symptoms due to compression tends to be faster 1.
Epidemiology
Spinal subdural hematomas are a rare entity, much more so than epidural hematomas. In a meta-analysis of over 600 spinal hematom...
Article
Spinal subdural space
The spinal subdural space is a potential area between the spinal arachnoid mater and the spinal dura mater.
Unlike the cranial subdural space, the spinal subdural space does not contain any bridging veins, and thus hemorrhage into this area only occurs in very rare cases 1. It only contains a ...
Article
Spinal subependymoma
Spinal subependymomas are very rare low-grade tumors (WHO I) of the spinal cord. Like intracranial subependymomas, that are far more common, spinal subependymomas are slow-growing, discrete tumors with little if any contrast enhancement.
Epidemiology
Due to the small number of cases reported ...
Article
Spinal synovial cyst
Spinal synovial cysts are cystic formations connected to the facet joint and containing synovial fluid lined by a cuboid or pseudostratified columnar epithelium. They may result in lumbar radiculopathy in a significant number of cases.
Clinical presentation
They may be asymptomatic and found i...
Article
Spinal vascular malformations
Spinal vascular malformations (SVM) are rare but knowledge of them is important as if undiagnosed and untreated they can lead to serious complications.
Pathology
There are two main types of SVMs 1,2:
spinal arteriovenous fistula (AVF): 70% of SVMs
pial: small, large, or giant
dural AVF (DA...
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Spinocerebellar tract
The spinocerebellar tracts are afferent neurons that convey proprioceptive data from the spinal cord to the cerebellum. There are anterior (or Gowers' tract) and posterior spinocerebellar tracts, the latter also referred to as Flechsig's tract. Both the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tra...
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Spinothalamic tracts
The spinothalamic tracts are ascending pathways in the spinal cord primarily concerned with sensory function. They are responsible for transmitting pain, temperature, coarse (non-discriminative) touch and pressure sensations 1.
Unlike other tracts main spinal tracts, the spinothalamic tracts de...
Article
Splenius capitis muscle
The splenius capitis is a strap-like muscles that, along with the splenius cervicis, comprise the superficial layer of intrinsic back muscles.
Gross anatomy
Attachments
origin: ligamentum nuchae, and the tips of the spinous processes and associated supraspinous ligaments of C7 and the upper t...
Article
Splenius cervicis muscle
The splenius cervicis is part of the superficial layer of the intrinsic back muscles. It is one of the two muscles in this group, the other being the splenius capitis.
Summary
origin: spinous processes of T3-T6
insertion: transverse processes of C1-C3
innervation: dorsal rami of the lower ce...
Article
Split atlas
Split or bipartite atlas is the rare congenital anomaly where the atlas is split into two halves by fusion defects in both the anterior and posterior arches. The osseous defects are spanned by fibrous tissue.
They are usually asymptomatic and found incidentally on spinal imaging. Patients may h...
Article
Split fat sign
The split fat sign is feature that can be seen typically on MRI images with peripheral nerve sheath tumors. It is seen as a fine rind of fat around the lesion. It is best appreciated on T1 weighted images 1. On coronal or sagittal images (i.e.images along the direction of the nerve) a tapered ri...
Article
Spondylodiskitis
Spondylodiskitis, (rare plural: spondylodiskitides) also referred to as diskitis-osteomyelitis, is characterized by infection involving the intervertebral disc and adjacent vertebrae.
Terminology
In adults, the use of the term diskitis is generally discouraged as isolated infection of the spin...
Article
Spondylolisthesis
Spondylolisthesis (plural: spondylolistheses) denotes the slippage of one vertebra relative to the one below. Spondylolisthesis can occur anywhere but is most frequent, particularly when due to spondylolysis, at L5/S1 and to a lesser degree L4/L5.
Terminology
Although etymologically it is dir...
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Spondylolisthesis grading system
A commonly adopted method of grading the severity of spondylolisthesis is the Meyerding classification. It divides the superior endplate of the vertebra below into 4 quarters. The grade depends on the location of the posteroinferior corner of the vertebra above.
This classification was original...
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Spondylolysis
Spondylolysis is a defect in the pars interarticularis of the neural arch, the portion of the neural arch that connects the superior and inferior articular facets. It is commonly known as pars interarticularis defect or more simply as pars defect.
Epidemiology
Spondylolysis is present in ~5% ...
Article
Spondyloptosis
Spondyloptosis is a term to denote grade V spondylolisthesis - a vertebra having slipped so far with respect to the vertebra below that the two endplates are no longer congruent. It is usually anterolisthesis of L5 on S1 but can be seen elsewhere rarely 1,2.
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Spondylosis
Spondylosis (plural: spondyloses) is used as a broad descriptive term referring to degeneration of the spinal column from any cause; it is usually further qualified by the part of the spine affected, e.g. cervical spondylosis.
History and etymology
It derives from the Ancient Greek word σπόνδυ...
Article
Straight back syndrome
Straight back syndrome refers to decreased thoracic kyphosis ("flattening") and decreased anteroposterior thoracic diameter, such that there is compression of cardiovascular or bronchial structures.
It should not be confused with flat back syndrome, which refers to decreased lumbar lordosis, o...
Article
Subacute combined degeneration of the cord
Subacute combined degeneration of the cord (SACD) is caused by vitamin B12 deficiency.
Epidemiology
Most common in patients older than 40 years and especially older than 60 years 7.
Clinical presentation
The clinical presentation of SACD is usually with loss of vibration and proprioception ...
Article
Subaxial cervical spine injury classification
The subaxial cervical spine injury classification (SLIC) and severity score is a system for cervical spine trauma that helps guide treatment and predicts prognosis.
Classification
Three parameters are assessed, two being radiologic determined and the last being a clinical assessment.
Injury m...
Article
Subluxed facet joint
Subluxed facet joint is the mildest form of facet dislocation in which the ligamentous injury leads to partial uncovering of facet joint (c.f. complete uncovering in perched facet). This results in mild anterior displacement of one vertebral body on another (anterolisthesis).
Article
Suboccipital muscle group
The suboccipital muscle group contains four paired muscles, three of which pairs belong to the suboccipital triangle. These muscles all lie below the occipital bone and are responsible for postural support of the head, as well as extension, lateral flexion and rotation. As these muscles are smal...
Article
Suboccipital triangle
The suboccipital triangles are a paired triangular-shaped space formed by the configuration of three paired muscles in the posterior neck between the occipital bone, C1 and C2.
Gross Anatomy
The suboccipital triangle has an inferomedial pointing apex (pointing towards the nuchal ligament) form...
Article
Sugar coating
So-called "sugar coating" or zuckerguss (German for sugar icing) refers to the appearance of diffuse linear/sheetlike leptomeningeal contrast enhancement in the brain or spinal cord due to drop metastases or leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. It is seen both as a result of CNS involvement from dista...
Article
Sulcal artery
Sulcal arteries are penetrating branches from the anterior spinal artery and extend posteriorly through the anterior median fissure of the spinal cord. The sulcal arteries supply the anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord at any cross-sectional level.
Successive sulcal arteries generally altern...
Article
Supraspinous ligament
The supraspinous ligament runs along the tips of adjacent spinous processes and is particularly thick in the cervicothoracic region. Above the level C7 spinous process the ligament no longer directly attaches to the spinous process but rather continues as the nuchal ligament up to its attachment...
Article
Surfer's myelopathy
Surfer's myelopathy is a rare, nontraumatic spinal cord injury occurring in novice surfers in whom prolonged hyperextension of the back causes infarction of the artery of Adamkiewicz.
Terminology
These patients are almost always novice surfers 1,2. However, cases of a similar syndrome have bee...
Article
Swischuk line
The Swischuk line is helpful in differentiating pathological anterior displacement of the cervical spine from physiological displacement, termed pseudosubluxation.
Measurement
the line is drawn from anterior aspect of posterior arch of C1 to anterior aspect of posterior arch of C3
the anterio...
Article
Sympathetic chain
The sympathetic chain is a component of the autonomic nervous system and is composed of general visceral afferent and efferent axons that allow for involuntary control of bodily functions via the hypothalamus.
The overarching function of the sympathetic system is to control the 'fight, fright o...
Article
Syndesmophyte
Syndesmophytes are calcifications or heterotopic ossifications inside a spinal ligament or of the annulus fibrosus. They are seen in only a limited number of conditions including:
ankylosing spondylitis
ochronosis
fluorosis
reactive arthritis
psoriatic arthritis
They can be classified as...
Article
Synovial cyst
Synovial cysts are para-articular fluid-filled sacs or pouch-like structures containing synovial fluid and lined by synovial membrane. They can occur around virtually every synovial joint in the body and also around tendon sheaths and bursae. Communication with the adjacent joint may or may not ...
Article
Systemic lupus erythematosus (CNS manifestations)
Central nervous system manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (CNS lupus) describe a wide variety of neuropsychiatric manifestations that are secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in the central nervous system (CNS).
For a general discussion, and for links to other system spec...
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T11 vertebra
T11 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a single costal facet that articulates with the atypical eleventh rib. There are no facets on the transverse processes.
Article
T12 vertebra
T12 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a single costal facet with no facets on transverse processes.
Article
T1 vertebra
T1 is an atypical thoracic vertebra. In contrast to typical thoracic vertebrae, it contains a complete facet for the 1st rib and a demifacet for the 2nd rib. It contains lips on the upper surface of the body. T1 also has a spinous process more horizontal than other thoracic vertebrae.
Article
Tabes dorsalis
Tabes dorsalis is a form of tertiary late neurosyphilis in which there is demyelination of the posterior columns of the spinal cord.
For a general discussion, and for links to other system specific manifestations, please refer to the article on syphilis.
Clinical presentation
Patients presen...
Article
Tarlov cyst
Tarlov cysts, also called perineural cysts, are CSF-filled dilatations of the nerve root sheath at the dorsal root ganglion (posterior nerve root sheath). These are type II spinal meningeal cysts that are, by definition, extradural but contain neural tissue.
Most Tarlov cysts are asymptomatic, ...
Article
Tectorial membrane of the spine
The tectorial membrane is the thin superior continuation of the posterior longitudinal ligament from the body of the axis. It joins the axis body to the clivus on the anterior half of the foramen magnum, and ascends as high as the spheno-occipital synchondrosis and laterally extends to the hypog...
Article
Terminal myelocystocele
Terminal myelocystoceles are an uncommon form of spinal dysraphism representing marked dilatation of the central canal of the spinal cord, herniating posteriorly through a dorsal spinal defect. The result is a skin-covered mass in the lower lumbar region, consisting of an ependyma-lined sac.
E...
Article
Tethered cord syndrome
Tethered cord syndrome is a neurological disorder caused by tissue attachments that limit the movement of the spinal cord within the spinal canal.
Clinical presentation
Tethered cord syndrome is a clinical diagnosis based on neurologic deterioration involving the lower spinal cord 7. Patients ...
Article
Third condyle
The third condyle, also known as condylus tertius or median occipital condyle, is a rare anatomic variant of the occipital condyles. It is a small separate ossicle at the anteromedial margin of the occipital condyle formed by the failure of the embryonic proatlas (4th occipital sclerotome) to un...
Article
Thoracic anatomy
Thoracic anatomy encompasses the anatomy of all structures of the thorax.
This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard of anatomical nomenclature.
Article
Thoracic spine
The thoracic spine (often shortened to T-spine) forms the middle part of the vertebral column. It extends from below C7 of the cervical spine to above L1 of the lumbar spine. There are 12 thoracic vertebra, termed T1-T12.
The thoracic spine is unique due to its articulation with ribs via costal...
Article
Thoracic spine (AP view)
The thoracic spine anteroposterior (AP) view images the thoracic spine, which consists of twelve vertebrae.
Indications
This projection is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postoperatively, and for chronic conditions. It can help to visualize any compression fractures, sublux...
Article
Thoracic spine fracture-dislocation
Thoracic spine fracture-dislocations are severe forms of spinal column injuries that occur secondary to high-energy trauma, in which there is vertebral fracture concomitant with dislocation of facet joints and/or the intervertebral disc space. They are mechanically unstable and are associated wi...
Article
Thoracic spine (lateral view)
The thoracic spine lateral view images the thoracic spine, which consists of twelve vertebrae.
Indications
This projection is utilized in many imaging contexts including trauma, postoperatively, and for chronic conditions. It can help to visualize any compression fractures, subluxation or kyph...
Article
Thoracic spine series
The thoracic spine series is comprised of two standard projections along with a range of additional projections depending on clinical indications. The series is often utilized in the context of trauma, postoperative imaging and for chronic conditions.
Radiographs of the thoracic spine are consi...
Article
Thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS)
The thoracolumbar injury classification and severity score (TLICS), also sometimes known as the thoracolumbar injury severity score (TISS), was developed by the Spine Trauma Group in 2005 to overcome some of the perceived difficulties regarding the use of other thoracolumbar spinal fracture clas...
Article
Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems
Thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems are numerous and represent attempts by various authors to create systems that allow uniform and reproducible classification and description of thoracolumbar fractures which in turn can help with treatment decision making and prognostication.
...