Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
981 results found
Article
Fibromuscular dysplasia
Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a heterogeneous group of vascular lesions characterized by an idiopathic, non-inflammatory, and non-atherosclerotic angiopathy of small and medium-sized arteries.
Epidemiology
The prevalence is unknown 7. It is most common in young women with a female to male r...
Article
Fibrous pseudotumor of the scrotum
Fibrous pseudotumor of the scrotum is a relatively rare, non-neoplastic extratesticular non-epididymal lesion.
Epidemiology
It affects any age. Although rare, it is considered the third most common extra testicular mass after a scrotal lipoma and an epididymal adenomatoid tumor.
Risk factors...
Article
Filarial dance sign
The filarial dance sign refers to a twirling motion of microfilariae (e.g. W. bancrofti) in dilated lymphatic channels. It is identified as a characteristic sign of scrotal filariasis.
The dilated channels are identified with the absence of color flow on color Doppler study and the microfilari...
Article
Filariasis
Filariasis refers to infection with nematodes (roundworms) of the family Filarioidea. There are three species of these thread-like filarial worms:
Wuchereria bancrofti: responsible for 90% of cases
Brugia malayi: causes most of the remainder of cases
Brugia timori: an uncommon cause
It can a...
Article
Filling defect
A filling defect is a general term used to refer to any abnormality on an imaging study which disrupts the normal opacification (filling) of a cavity or lumen. The opacification maybe physiological, for example, bile in the gallbladder or blood in a dural venous sinus, or maybe due to the instal...
Article
Finnish type congenital nephrotic syndrome
The Finnish type congenital nephrotic syndrome is a sub type of congenital nephrotic syndrome. A large placenta and proteinuria from birth are considered hallmarks of the disease 2. The proteinuria is often of intra-uterine onset. Although it is named the Finnish type, it can occur outside Finla...
Article
Fishhook ureters
Fishhook ureters, also known as J-shaped ureters or hockey stick ureters describe the appearance of the distal ureter in patients with significant benign prostatic hypertrophy. It has also been used to describe the appearance of a retrocaval ureter in type 1 or low loop variety. As the right ur...
Article
Fistula
A fistula (plural: fistulae) is an abnormal connection between two epithelial surfaces such as between hollow organs, skin or vessels. Conventionally, the name of a specific fistula type is a combination of the two organs
For discussions of specific fistulae please refer to individual articles....
Article
Fluorine-18-labeled sodium fluoride
Fluorine-18-labeled sodium fluoride (also known as 18F-NaF or sodium fluoride) is a PET radiotracer used primarily for skeletal imaging.
Structure
Fluorine-18-labeled sodium fluoride is an ionic compound comprised of a single sodium atom bound to a positron-emitting isotope of fluorine.
Dist...
Article
Foley catheter
The Foley catheter is a urinary catheter with a balloon at its distal tip, which is inflated post-insertion to ensure that the catheter remains in the bladder. Originally inflation of the balloon required the instillation of fluid or air via a separate port, next to the external end of the cathe...
Article
Fornix (disambiguation)
The term fornix (plural: fornices) is used for anatomical structures in multiple organ systems that all share an arch-like morphology:
fornix (brain)
fornix (eye)
fornix (lacrimal)
fornix (pharynx)
fornix (renal)
fornix (stomach)
fornix (vagina)
History and etymology
Fornix is Latin for...
Article
Fossa navicularis (urethra)
The fossa navicularis refers to a normal mild dilatation of the urethra. It occurs at the most distal/downstream portion of the urethra.
It is more evident in males, where it occurs in the penile/pendulous urethra, near the urethral meatus. There is also a fossa navicularis in women: the more f...
Article
Fountain sign (acute idiopathic scrotal edema)
The fountain sign is a sonographic sign described in acute idiopathic scrotal edema (AISE).
It refers to the appearance of the pattern of vascularity seen during transverse color Doppler sonography of the scrotum with both testes together 1. In this transverse view, in patients with AISE, marke...
Article
Fournier gangrene
Fournier gangrene is necrotizing fasciitis of the perineum. It is a true urological emergency due to the high mortality rate but fortunately, the condition is rare. It is primarily a clinical diagnosis, and definitive treatment must not be delayed to perform imaging, which usually has an ancilla...
Article
Fraley syndrome
Fraley syndrome is the eponymous term for a dilated calyx (hydrocalyx) due to compression of a calyceal infundibulum from an adjacent artery or vein.
Epidemiology
It is rare, but it occurs more often involving the upper pole calyx. It is common in young women.
Clinical presentation
The hydro...
Article
Free/total PSA ratio
The free/total PSA ratio (%fPSA) is an additional new parameter used in assessing prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. It is the simple mathematical ratio of the free PSA in the serum over the total PSA in the serum and is expressed as a dimensionless quantity 4.
Some authors 1,2 recommend t...
Article
Frenulum (disambiguation)
Frenulum (plural: frenula) is an anatomical term and refers to a small fold of soft tissue that checks the movement of an anatomical part.
frenulum (clitoris)
frenulum (ileocecal valve)
frenulum (labia minora)
frenulum (penis)
frenulum (tongue)
History and etymology
Frenulum derives from ...
Article
Frozen pelvis
Frozen pelvis refers to a condition in which pelvic organs are distorted and tethered to each other as a consequence of adhesive processes.
It is commonly seen in endometriosis. Other causes include tumors, infections including pelvic inflammatory disease, post-surgical adhesions and post-treat...
Article
Fungal ball of the urinary tract
Fungal balls of the urinary tract, also known as fungal bezoars or mycetomas of the urinary tract, are a rare manifestation of funguria, usually candiduria.
Epidemiology
While candiduria may be seen in approximately 20% of hospitalized patients 1, development of fungal balls is considered very...
Article
Ganglioneuroma
Ganglioneuromas are fully differentiated neuronal tumors that do not contain immature elements and potentially occur anywhere along with the peripheral autonomic ganglion sites.
On imaging, usually, they present as well-defined solid masses and can be quite large at presentation. Generally, th...
Article
Gas in the urinary bladder
There are numerous causes of gas in the urinary bladder. In the hospital setting by far the most common is the recent placement of an indwelling urinary catheter. Other causes include 1:
iatrogenic
indwelling urinary catheter is by far the most common cause
cystoscopy, etc.
emphysematous cys...
Article
Genitourinary tuberculosis
Genitourinary tuberculosis is the second most common site of infection in humans by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, second only to pulmonary tuberculosis.
It can most easily be divided anatomically into:
renal tuberculosis (renal parenchyma, calyces and renal pelvis)
bladder and ureteric tubercu...
Article
Germ cell tumor (classification)
Germ cell tumors are classified into two broad groups: seminoma and non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT). The later is then divided further according to histology:
seminoma
non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
embryonal cell carcinoma
choriocarcinoma
yolk sac tumor
teratoma
mi...
Article
Germ cell tumors
Germ cell tumors are found widely throughout the body and encompass a wide range of individual tumors.
This article does not deal with any specific body locations. For detailed discussion please refer the articles listed at the end of this page.
Pathology
Germ cell tumors arise from ectopic ...
Article
Germ cell tumors (mnemonic)
A mnemonic for the differential diagnosis for germ cell tumors is:
SECTE
Mnemonic
S: seminoma
E: embryonal cell carcinoma
C: choriocarcinoma
T: teratoma
E: endodermal sinus tumor (yolk sac tumor)
Article
Germinoma
Germinoma is a term that if unqualified, usually refers to a tumor of the brain but can also refer to similar tumors of other regions particularly the ovary and testis.
dysgerminoma of the ovary
seminoma of the testis
CNS germinoma: see WHO classification of CNS tumors
All these tumors share...
Article
Gleason score
The histological grading of prostate cancer has undergone many revisions, and for many years the primary system was the Gleason score, itself derived from the Gleason grade. In 2014, the Grade Group was introduced, and care must be taken to not confuse this with the Gleason grade.
The Gleason g...
Article
Global testicular infarction
Global testicular infarction is fortunately rare, and is most commonly seen in the context of testicular torsion. However rarely it can occur secondary to other causes.
Pathology
Etiology
testicular torsion
epididymo-orchitis 1-4
iatrogenic
surgery, e.g. inguinal hernia repair 7
post-EVA...
Article
Glomerulocystic disease
Glomerulocystic disease (GCK) is a rare cystic kidney disease.
Pathology
Microscopic appearance
Histopathology typically shows normal-sized glomeruli with the enlarged Bowman’s space and tubular cystic changes. A proposed mechanism of glomerular cyst development is stenosis at the glomerulot...
Article
Goblet sign (ureter)
The goblet sign, also known as the champagne glass sign, refers to the appearance of the ureter when it is focally dilated by an intraluminal mass. It is best seen when the ureter is opacified by retrograde contrast (retrograde ureterogram). Presence of this sign indicates the pathology to be ch...
Article
Goldman classification of urethral injuries
The Goldman classification of urethral injuries is a more widely accepted classification than one proposed by the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST). The Goldman classification is based on the anatomical location of the urethral injury and was initially proposed by Colapinto a...
Article
Gonadal artery
The gonadal arteries are the paired primary vascular supply to the ovaries in the female and the testes in the male. As the anatomy of the gonadal arteries differs substantially between the sexes, they are covered separately:
ovarian arteries
testicular arteries
Article
Gonadal vein
The gonadal veins are paired structures that drain the gonads in males and females. In males it is called the testicular vein (or internal spermatic vein) and in females it is called the ovarian vein. The gonadal veins ascend with the gonadal arteries in the abdomen along the psoas muscle anteri...
Article
Gonadoblastoma
Gonadoblastomas are uncommon sex cord / stromal tumors. They are associated with disorders of sexual development (previously known as "intersex disorders").
Epidemiology
The vast majority are found <30 years of age. Most are discovered in the perinatal period. May occur in phenotypic males or ...
Article
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), previously known as Wegener granulomatosis, is a multisystem necrotizing non-caseating granulomatous c-ANCA positive vasculitis affecting small to medium-sized arteries, capillaries, and veins, with a predilection for the respiratory system and kidneys.
T...
Article
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (renal manifestations)
The renal manifestations of granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) are occult on imaging, especially when compared to the pulmonary changes.
For a general discussion of the condition, please refer to the main article on granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA). For other organ-specific radiograp...
Article
Granulomatous epididymitis
Granulomatous epididymitis refers to a form of epididymitis secondary to a granulomatous process. It may or may not be associated with concurrent orchitis.
It is usually associated with
tuberculosis - tuberculous epididymitis
BCG - Bacillus Calmette-Guérin
Occasional cases are idiopathic, ca...
Article
Granulomatous prostatitis
Granulomatous prostatitis is a nodular form of chronic prostatitis. It is usually diagnosed on biopsy.
Pathology
Causes
idiopathic
infection
iatrogenic
Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine
post-radiotherapy
systemic disease:
sarcoidosis
autoimmune
Subtypes
Several classification sy...
Article
Great vessel space
The great vessel space is the fourth retroperitoneal space along with the anterior and posterior pararenal spaces, and the perirenal space 1,2. Unlike other retroperitoneal spaces, it is not well-defined by fascial planes and thus disease processes affecting other retroperitoneal spaces can also...
Article
Growing teratoma syndrome
Growing teratoma syndrome is a rare complication after treatment for metastatic (or in the case of intracranial disease, primary) non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT).
It was first described in the pediatric population with treated germ cell neoplasms, and represents enlarging masses at th...
Article
Hematospermia
Hematospermia (less commonly hemospermia) refers to the presence of blood in semen or ejaculatory fluid. It is a symptom that can cause great anxiety in patients despite usually being of benign etiology.
Pathology
Etiology
Benign
urogenital infections including sexually transmitted disease, ...
Article
Hematuria (adult)
Hematuria occurs when blood enters the urinary collecting system and is excreted in the urine. There are many etiologies for hematuria, and they range from benign and transient to gravely concerning. Hematuria can derive from the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate (in men), or urethra. Imaging ...
Article
Hematuria (pediatric)
Hematuria in a child is evaluated differently than in an adult in two main respects:
there is a lower likelihood of a malignancy (renal or bladder) causing the hematuria
preference is given to nonionizing radiation
Pathology
Hematuria can be considered in three main forms:
"gross" hematuria...
Article
Haemodialysis vascular access
Vascular access for haemodialysis when patients' with end-stage renal failure require renal replacement therapy. Options include temporary/permanent and non surgical vs surgical methods. This article will focus on surgical arteriovenous fistulae.
Types of vascular access
Temporary
Temporary...
Article
Hemolytic uremic syndrome
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a multisystem thrombotic microangiopathic disease characterized by the triad of renal failure, hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia. It is the most common cause of renal failure in infancy and childhood requiring dialysis.
There are two forms of this syndrom...
Article
Hemorrhage exclusion sign (prostate)
The hemorrhage exclusion sign can be a useful MRI finding following prostate biopsy.
Pathology
The normal prostate produces high concentrations of citrate, which among other properties, acts as an anticoagulant 1. As tumor cells are dysfunctional, they will produce lower levels of citrate than...
Article
Hairy kidney sign (Erdheim-Chester disease)
The hairy kidney sign refers to the soft tissue ring of perirenal infiltration seen on cross-sectional imaging studies in Erdheim-Chester disease, and is considered to be pathognomonic of this disease. The ‘‘hairy’’ description refers to the associated thickening of the bridging perirenal septa ...
Article
H and M lines
The H and M lines are reference lines for the pelvic floor on imaging studies and help detect and grade pelvic floor prolapse on defecography studies.
The H line is drawn from the inferior margin of the pubic symphysis to the posterior aspect of the anorectal junction, and represents the diamet...
Article
Height adjusted total kidney volume
Height adjusted total kidney volume (HtTKV) is used in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease to predict the onset of renal insufficiency. There is strong evidence to indicate that baseline htTKV predicts, with good sensitivity and specificity, the development of renal insuff...
Article
Hepatorenal syndrome
Hepatorenal syndrome refers to a form of acute kidney injury caused by changes in renal blood flow regulation due to liver pathology 1. Although the syndrome occurs mainly in cirrhotic livers it has been reported in patients with acute fulminant liver failure as well 1.
Epidemiology
The incide...
Article
Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps syndrome
Hereditary angiopathy with nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps (HANAC) syndrome is an autosomal dominant monogenic COL4A1-related disorder.
Epidemiology
The exact prevalence is unknown.
Clinical presentation
The cardinal features of HANAC syndrome are helpfully described in the name of...
Article
Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome
Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) syndrome is caused by a mutation to either BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. These patients have an increased risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer. However, these gene mutations are not the only cause of hereditary breast ca...
Article
Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma
Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma (HLRCC), also known as Reed syndrome, is an autosomal dominant tumor susceptibility syndrome.
Pathology
It is characterized by:
predisposition to benign cutaneous and uterine leiomyomas (fibroids, myomas)
susceptibility to early-onset renal ...
Article
Hereditary renal cancer syndromes
Despite the vast majority of renal cancers being sporadic, there are a number of hereditary renal cancer syndromes:
von Hippel Lindau syndrome: predominantly clear cell type
tuberous sclerosis: predominantly clear cell type (also associated with angiomyolipoma)
hereditary paraganglioma-pheoch...
Article
Herlyn-Werner-Wunderlich syndrome
Herlyn-Werner-Wunderlich (HWW) syndrome, is a rare anomaly characterized by Müllerian duct anomalies (MDA) associated with mesonephric duct anomalies 3. This entity is also known as obstructed hemivagina and ipsilateral renal anomaly (OHVIRA). It is not to be confused with the Wunderlich syndrom...
Article
Hermaphroditism
Hermaphroditism states are a result of abnormalities in embryonic development and may have mixed characteristics of each sex, with variable clinical manifestations. True hermaphroditism is defined as the simultaneous presence in a single individual of both testicular and ovarian tissues, that may...
Article
Hernia (general)
Hernias (or herniae) are a common pathological entity, in which an anatomical structure passes into an abnormal location via an opening.
The opening may be a normal physiological aperture (e.g. hiatus hernia: stomach passes through the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus) or pathological. Iatrogeni...
Article
Heterogeneous testicular echotexture
Heterogeneous testicular echotexture at ultrasound may be the result of a variety of underlying pathology:
seminiferous tubular atrophy - can occur in around 14% of middle aged to elderly patients 2
testicular trauma
orchitis
Article
HIV/AIDS (genitourinary manifestations)
Genitourinary manifestations of HIV/AIDS are protean and can be divided into:
HIV-associated nephropathy
renal diseases related to opportunistic infections: CMV, tuberculosis and MAC infections, fungal infections, pneumocystis carinii infection
drug-related renal diseases:
indinavir-induced ...
Article
HIV associated neoplasms
HIV-associated neoplasms are numerous and can be broadly divided into two groups:
AIDS-defining malignancies
associated but not AIDS defining malignancies
AIDS-defining malignancies
The development of these malignancies in HIV affected individuals generally implies progression to AIDS 4:
Ka...
Article
HIV-associated nephropathy
HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) is commonly seen in patients with HIV/AIDS and leads to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The diagnosis is not imaging-based and must be confirmed by renal biopsy.
Epidemiology
HIVAN is seen in patients at advanced stages of HIV and AIDS, but it can also be see...
Article
Hockey stick sign (disambiguation)
The hockey stick sign can refer to a variety of different signs and appearances:
hockey stick sign (thyroid hemiagenesis)
hockey stick sign (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease)
hockey stick sign (ureters)
Article
Horseshoe adrenal gland
A horseshoe adrenal gland is a very rare anomaly. It is also sometimes referred to as a butterfly, fused or midline adrenal gland.
It is a solitary adrenal gland that is present in the midline of the fused portion either passing between the aorta and the inferior vena cava or posterior to the a...
Article
Horseshoe kidney
Horseshoe kidneys are the most common type of renal fusion anomaly. They render the kidneys susceptible to trauma and are an independent risk factor for the development of renal calculi and transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis.
Epidemiology
Horseshoe kidneys are found in approximate...
Article
Horseshoe-shaped (disambiguation)
Several normal anatomical structures and rare organ variants have been described as being horseshoe-shaped.
Organ anomalies
horseshoe kidney
horseshoe lung
horseshoe adrenal
horseshoe appendix
horseshoe pancreas 1
Horseshoe-shaped organs
hyoid bone
limbic lobe
supramarginal gyrus
tymp...
Article
Hurley stick ureters
Hurley stick ureters refers to the widening of the distal ureters with abnormal lateral and upward curvature instead of normal oblique intramural course in excretory urogram. The appearance of distal ureter resembles hurley stick used in the traditional Iris game of hurling. This is seen in blad...
Article
Hutch diverticulum
Hutch diverticula are congenital bladder diverticula, seen at the vesicoureteric junction, in the absence of posterior urethral valves or neurogenic bladder. They are thought to result from a weakness in the detrusor muscle anterolateral to the ureteral orifice.
Epidemiology
They occur almost...
Article
Hydrocele
Hydroceles are acquired or congenital serous fluid collections between the layers of the tunica vaginalis surrounding a testis or spermatic cord. They are the most common form of "testicular" enlargement and present with painless enlargement of the scrotum. On all modalities, hydroceles appear a...
Article
Hydrocele of the canal of Nuck
Hydrocele of the canal of Nuck is a rare condition in female children caused by a failure of complete obliteration of the canal of Nuck 1. The canal of Nuck is an abnormal patent pouch of peritoneum extending anterior to the round ligament of the uterus into the labia majora 2. Incomplete oblite...
Article
Hydronephrosis
Hydronephrosis (plural: hydronephroses) is defined as dilatation of the urinary collecting system of the kidney (the calyces, the infundibula, and the pelvis) 1.
Hydronephrosis in fetuses and newborns has specific causes that are covered in a separate article.
Terminology
The term hydroureter...
Article
Hydronephrosis (grading)
Grading systems of hydronephrosis have been devised to communicate the degree of upper collecting system dilatation. The most common system used (Society of Fetal Urology, SFU) was originally designed for grading neonatal and infant hydronephrosis:
grade 0
no dilatation, calyceal walls are app...
Article
Hydronephrosis (mnemonic)
The causative factors leading to hydronephrosis can be recalled using this mnemonic :
RUNS
Mnemonic
R: retroperitoneal fibrosis
U: urolithiasis
N: neoplastic mass (cervical cancer)
S: stenosis of pelvi-ureteric junction
Article
Hydroureter
Hydroureter refers to abnormal dilation (>3 mm) of the ureter and may occur in combination with hydronephrosis.
Terminology
The term, megaureter, is usually reserved for ureters >7 mm in diameter. The term hydroureteronephrosis (or hydronephroureterosis) may be used when ureteric dilatation o...
Article
Hymen
The hymen (plural: hymens) is a thin fold of mucous membrane which extends across the vaginal opening, usually with some form of internal defect, which permits the free passage of normal menses.
It usually ruptures during coitus with the remnants, usually in the form of small tags of tissue ar...
Article
Hyperdense renal cyst
Benign hyperattenuating renal cysts are also known as hyperdense renal cysts.
Epidemiology
They are frequently found in patients with either acquired cystic renal disease or autosomal dominant polycystic renal disease 1.
Radiographic features
homogeneously hyperattenuating (even when a narro...
Article
Hyperparathyroidism
Hyperparathyroidism is the effect of excess parathyroid hormone in the body. It can be primary, secondary, or tertiary. There are many characteristic imaging features, predominantly involving the skeletal system.
Clinical presentation
Hyperparathyroidism is supported biochemically by either an...
Article
Hyperreninaemic hypertension (differential)
Hyperreninaemic hypertension may have many causes including:
renal artery stenosis
renal secreting tumor, e.g. renal cell carcinoma, reninoma
renal compression: large renal mass, subcapsular hemorrhage (Page kidney)
Article
Hypertrophied column of Bertin
Columns of Bertin represent the extension of renal cortical tissue which separates the pyramids, and as such are normal structures. They become of radiographic importance when they are unusually enlarged and may be mistaken for a renal mass (renal pseudotumor).
Nomenclature of such enlarged col...
Article
Hypogastric nerves
The hypogastric nerves are paired nerve bundles that are part of the autonomic nervous system and located in the pelvis.
Summary
location: pelvis
origin: contain sympathetic fibers descending from the superior hypogastric plexus and parasympathetic fibers ascending from the inferior hypogast...
Article
Hypospadias
Hypospadias refers to a type of congenital malformation affecting the male external genitalia.
Epidemiology
The estimated prevalence is ~2 (range 0.2-4.1) per 1000 live births.
Pathology
The urethral meatus is abnormally positioned proximally and ventrally to its normal position.
It is thou...
Article
Hypovitaminosis A
Hypovitaminosis A results from inadequate intake of vitamin A, fat malabsorption, or liver disorders and produces a variety of epithelial alterations.
Epidemiology
The World Health Organization currently estimates that 45-122 countries have a vitamin A deficiency of public health significance ...
Article
Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis
Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis, also known as Ormond disease or occasionally Albarran-Ormond syndrome 6, is a subtype of retroperitoneal fibrosis where no cause is found. It includes a spectrum of diseases which are characterized by fibroinflammatory tissue encasing the abdominal aorta and ...
Article
Idiopathic scrotal calcinosis
Idiopathic scrotal calcinosis, sometimes called dystrophic scrotal calcinosis, is a rare benign condition characterized by superficial calcifications within the skin of the scrotum of unclear etiology. The condition is primarily cosmetic but may recur following excision of the calcified bodies.
...
Article
IgA nephropathy
IgA nephropathy (also known as IgA nephritis or Berger disease) is a form of glomerulonephritis.
Epidemiology
IgA nephropathy is considered the most common glomerulonephritis worldwide and is a leading cause of chronic kidney disease and renal failure.
Pathology
Primary IgA nephropathy is c...
Article
Ileal conduit
An ileal conduit (or "Bricker conduit") was one of the original types of urinary diversions, and it is still in use today.
Pathology
The conduit is most often placed after cystectomy (or cystoprostatectomy) for muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Although not a continent diversion, it may be prefe...
Article
Ileal ureter interposition
Ileal ureter interpositions are uncommon urologic reconstructions, using a loop of small bowel to replace a damaged ureter. The concept is similar to the formation of a neobladder from small bowel (e.g. ileal conduit), except one is forming a neo-ureter.
Variants include using colon as an inter...
Article
Ileovesicostomy
Ileovesicostomy (also known as "cutaneous ileocystostomy", "ileal chimney", or "bladder chimney") is an uncommon urologic diversion in which a loop of small bowel is anastomosed/augmented to the dome of the bladder. This loop of bowel then exits through a urostomy. The diversion is not continent...
Article
Imperforate hymen
Imperforate hymen is a congenital condition in which the hymen lacks a normal opening.
Epidemiology
It happens in 0.1% of the female population, usually an isolated finding.
Clinical presentation
Primary amenorrhea with cyclic lower abdominal pain during menarche age. An imperforate hymen c...
Article
Incidentaloma
An incidentaloma is a radiological neologism to denote a lesion found incidentally and of dubious clinical significance. Although it can refer to any incidental lesion (e.g. pituitary 3, thyroid 4), it is most often used to denote an incidental adrenal lesion, which is commonly an adrenal adenom...
Article
Increased renal echogenicity
Increased renal echogenicity is a non-specific finding but can represent a number of underlying conditions.
These include:
normal variation
renal amyloidosis
chronic kidney disease: increased cortical echogenicity
sickle cell disease 4
See also
echogenic renal pyramids - pediatric
renal ...
Article
Inferior adrenal artery
The inferior adrenal (suprarenal) artery is one of three adrenal arteries that supplies the adrenal gland.
Gross anatomy
Origin
Ipsilateral renal artery (usually before the terminal division of the renal artery)
Location
The course of the inferior suprarenal artery depends on its origin. Re...
Article
Inferior hypogastric plexus
The inferior hypogastric plexuses are autonomic nerve plexuses located in the pelvis.
Summary
location: lies in pelvis in extraperitoneal connective tissue on pelvic sidewall anterolateral to the mesorectum
origin: formed mainly from pelvic splanchnic branches (parasympathetic) and sacral spl...
Article
Inferior rectal nerve
The inferior rectal nerve, also known as the inferior anal nerve or inferior hemorrhoidal nerve, is a branch of the pudendal nerve which is derived from S2, S3 and S4 nerve roots of the sacral plexus. The nerve provides sensory innervation to the anal canal inferior to the pectinate line and mot...