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Syphilis

Syphilis is the result of infection with the gram negative spirochete Treponema pallidum, subspecies pallidum. It results in a heterogeneous spectrum of disease with many systems that can potentially be involved, which are discussed separately. Epidemiology Despite the discovery of penicillin...

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease with multisystem involvement. Although abnormalities in almost every aspect of the immune system have been found, the key defect is thought to result from a loss of self-tolerance to auto-antigens. Epidemiology There is a stron...

Tamm-Horsfall proteins

Tamm-Horsfall proteins, also known as uromodulin, may be a cause of echogenic renal pyramids in a neonate. Tamm-Horsfall proteins are physiologically excreted by the renal tubular epithelium. They are most often encountered on neonatal renal ultrasound, where the concentrated proteins in the re...

Tc-99m DMSA

Tc-99m DMSA (2,3 dimercaptosuccinic acid) is a technetium radiopharmaceutical used in renal imaging to evaluate renal structure and morphology, particularly in pediatric imaging for detection of scarring and pyelonephritis. DMSA is an ideal agent for assessment of the renal cortex as it binds to...

Tc-99m DTPA

Tc-99m DTPA (diethylene-triamine-pentaacetate) is one of the technetium radiopharmaceuticals used in renal imaging and primarily used to measure the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Characteristics photon energy: 140 KeV physical half-life: 6 hours biological half-life: 2.5 hours normal di...

Tc-99m MAG3

Tc-99m MAG3 (mercaptoacetyltriglycine) is one of the technetium radiopharmaceuticals used in renal imaging. Characteristics photon energy: 140 KeV physical half life: 6 hours biological half life: 4 hours normal distribution: kidneys (100%) pharmacokinetics: uptake by tubular secretion (9...

Tc-99m pertechnetate

Tc-99m pertechnetate (Na+ 99mTc O4-) is one of the technetium radiopharmaceuticals used in imaging of thyroid, colon, bladder and stomach. Technetium (99mTc) has eight oxidation states 6, from -1 to +7; specifically, the oxidation state of technetium in the pertechnetate anion (99mTcO4-) is +7....

Technetium agents

Technetium agents based on the technetium-99m (Tc-99m) radioisotope are frequently used agents in medical imaging. A radiopharmaceutical labeled with 99mTc constitutes a coordination complex in which ligands bond to a central atom of 99mTc by coordinate covalent bonds 4 . The radioactive techne...

Teratoma

Teratomas are germ cell tumors that arise from ectopic pluripotent stem cells that fail to migrate from yolk sac endoderm to the urogenital ridge during embryogenesis. By definition, they contain elements from all three embryological layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm although frequently, e...

Testicular abscess

Testicular abscess is usually a complication of severe epididymo-orchitis and needs to be distinguished from other testicular pathology that may present with similar clinical or imaging features. Epidemiology The majority of patients develop a testicular abscess as a result of untreated or se...

Testicular adrenal rests

Testicular adrenal rests are a rare cause of a testicular mass. Terminology Testicular adrenal rests can be known by a variety of terms 2: testicular adrenal rest tumor (TART) testicular adrenal rest tissue testicular tumor of the adrenogenital syndrome testicular adrenal-like tissue Epid...

Testicular and scrotal ultrasound

Testicular and scrotal ultrasound is the primary modality for imaging most of the male reproductive system. It is relatively quick, relatively inexpensive, can be correlated quickly with the patient's signs and symptoms, and, most importantly, does not employ ionizing radiation. MRI is occasion...

Testicular appendages

Testicular and epididymal appendages are remnants of embryonic ducts and are quite common, with one or more being present in ~70% of patients 1. Gross anatomy Four such appendages have been described: testicular appendix (hydatid of Morgagni) it is a Müllerian duct remnant (paramesonephric d...

Testicular appendix

A testicular appendix (alternatively called appendix of testis or appendix testis, and historically also known as hydatid of Morgagni) represents a developmental remnant of the paramesonephric duct (Müllerian duct) which is situated in the upper pole of the testis inside a groove between the tes...

Testicular arteries

The testicular arteries (also known as the spermatic arteries) are the long, small-diameter gonadal arteries in the male that supply the testis alongside the cremasteric artery and the artery to the ductus deferens. Gross anatomy Origin As paired structures they arise symmetrically, slightly...

Testicular cancer

Testicular cancers are the most common neoplasm in men between the ages of 20 and 34 years. Epidemiology Testicular cancer is uncommon, accounting for less than 1% of all internal organ malignancies 2. The demographics of affected individuals depends on the age of the histology of the tumor. ...

Testicular cancer (staging)

The staging for testicular tumors is performed according to the TNM system with staging groupings. It can be remembered in its abbreviated form as: stage I: confined to testis, epididymis, spermatic cord, scrotum stage II: lymph nodes involved but no distant metastases and serum tumor markers...

Testicular choriocarcinoma

Testicular choriocarcinoma is a type of non-seminomatous germ cell tumor. Epidemiology Incidence peaks at around 20-30 years of age. Clinical presentation Can be variable with some patients initially presenting with metastates. Pathology It is most commonly detected as a component of a mi...

Testicular cyst

Simple testicular cysts are usually nonpalpable and thus are detected incidentally. Testicular cysts require no treatment when discovered. Radiographic features Ultrasound well-marginated imperceptible wall anechoic with posterior acoustic enhancement no flow on color Doppler MRI follow...

Testicular descent

Testicular descent occurs after the fourth month of fetal life. The testes are derived from the gonadal ridge medial to the mesonephric ridge of the intermediate cell mass. An elongated diverticulum of the peritoneal cavity, the processus vaginalis precedes the testis through the inguinal canal ...

Testicular dislocation

Testicular dislocation is a rare condition in which a testicle is dislocated from its normal position within the scrotum to another location, most commonly the superficial inguinal pouch. Epidemiology The condition mainly occurs in younger men with a mean age of 25 years 2. Clinical presentat...

Testicular embryonal cell carcinoma

Testicular embryonal cell carcinoma is a type of non-seminomatous germ cell tumor. Epidemiology Incidence peaks at around 25-30 years. Pathology It may occur as part of a mixed germ cell tumor (more common and may be present as a component in around 80% of mixed germ cell tumors) or very ra...

Testicular epidermoid cyst

Testicular epidermoid cysts, also known as keratocysts, are rare benign tumors. Epidemiology Testicular epidermoid cysts account for around 1-2% of all testicular masses and typically present in mid-adulthood (2nd to 4th decades) 1,2. They are the most common type of benign testicular neoplasm...

Testicular fracture

Testicular fracture refers to a break in the parenchyma of the testicle as a result of blunt trauma. Radiographic features Ultrasound A fracture line can be seen as a hypoechoic and avascular area within the testis but is only seen in 17% of cases 1. A tunica albuginea rupture may also be pr...

Testicular germ cell tumors

Testicular germ cell tumors account for 90% of primary tumors of the testes. They are the most common nonhaematologic malignancy in men 15-49 years old. They are divided into: testicular seminoma: 40% of germ cell tumors 1 non-seminomatous germ cell tumor: 60% of germ cell tumors testicular...

Testicular lipomatosis

Testicular lipomatosis is a rare condition characterized by homogeneously hyperechoic non-shadowing lesions within the testes on ultrasound without flow on color Doppler. It is seen as a component of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog (gene)) hamartoma tumor syndrome which includes: Cowden sy...

Testicular lymphoma

Testicular lymphoma is an uncommon testicular malignancy. Lymphoma can involve the testes in three ways: primary site of extranodal disease (primary testicular lymphoma) secondary involvement of systemic disease primary manifestation of subclinical systemic disease This article is concerned ...

Testicular microlithiasis

Testicular microlithiasis (TM) is a relatively common condition that represents the deposition of multiple tiny calcifications throughout both testes. The most common criterion for diagnosis is that of five microcalcifications in one testicle, although definitions have varied in the past. In t...

Testicular mixed germ cell tumors

Testicular mixed germ cell tumors are, as the name suggests, testicular tumors composed of two or more types of germ cell tumor. They are considered to be part of non-seminomatous germ cell tumors, as it is that component which dictates prognosis and treatment. Overall they account for over 10...

Testicular sarcoidosis

Testicular sarcoidosis is a rare manifestation of sarcoidosis. In cases of urogenital sarcoidosis, more commonly the epididymis is affected. Epidemiology Testicular sarcoidosis is more common in African-American patients, as are other forms of sarcoidosis 1. Up to 5% of patients with chronic s...

Testicular seminoma

Testicular seminomas are the most common testicular tumors and account for ~45% of all primary testicular tumors. This article concerns itself only with testicular seminomas, however, seminomas can arise outside of the testicle most often within the anterior mediastinum, e.g. anterior mediastina...

Testicular teratoma

Testicular teratoma, unlike ovarian teratoma, is often aggressive in its biological behavior, and often exists as part of testicular mixed germ cell tumors. Epidemiology Pure testicular teratomas account for only 4-9% of all testicular tumors. A similar number are seen in the context of test...

Testicular torsion

Testicular torsion occurs when a testicle torts on the spermatic cord resulting in the cutting off of blood supply. The most common symptom is acute testicular pain and the most common underlying cause, a bell-clapper deformity. The diagnosis is often made clinically but if it is in doubt, an ul...

Testicular trauma

Testicular trauma is the third most-common cause of acute scrotal pain and may result in various degree of damage to the testes. Pathology Testicular rupture and testicular ischemia/infarct are two severe complications which need to be ruled out. Other injuries that can occur include 1: testi...

Testicular vasculitis

Testicular vasculitis can occur as either part of a systemic vasculitis or an isolated vasculitis involving only the testes with both having roughly equal prevalence. Epidemiology The mean age of onset is approximately 40 years. Clinical presentation Symptoms can include a testicular mass w...

Testicular yolk sac tumor

Testicular yolk sac tumors (also known as endodermal sinus tumor of the testis) is the most common childhood testicular tumor (80%), with most cases occurring before the age of two years 1. In adults, pure yolk sac tumor is extremely rare, however mixed germ cell tumor are commonly seen. Pathol...

Testis

The testes, also known as the testicles, are the male gonads and are contained within the scrotum. The testes are responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone. Gross anatomy At birth, testes measure approximately 1.5 cm (length) x 1 cm (width), reaching ~4 mL volume at puberty 1. ...

Thimble bladder

Thimble bladder is a descriptive term for extreme fibrosis and contracture of the bladder walls, resulting in a tiny bladder. The term is usually used to describe changes from advanced genitourinary tuberculosis.

Threads and streaks sign

The threads and streaks sign refers to an angiographic appearance of a vascularized tumor thrombus extending into the ipsilateral renal vein or the inferior vena cava from a renal cell carcinoma. This gives an appearance of linear, thread-like or string-like appearance of the involved vessel. ...

Throckmorton sign (pelvis)

Throckmorton sign, also known as John Thomas sign, refers to when the penis points in the direction of unilateral disease, typically of the pelvis or hip. Throckmorton sign is a slang term used humorously by medical students and residents. According to the first serious study of the sign publ...

Torsion of the appendix testis

Torsion of the appendix testis (occasionally called torsion of the hydatid of Morgagni) is the most common cause of an acute painful hemiscrotum in a child. The appendix testis is located at the upper pole of the testis (between the testis and the head of the epididymis). The normal appendix te...

Transitional cell carcinoma grading

Transitional cell carcinomas of the urothelium are graded histologically as follows: transitional cell papilloma benign tumor, not a carcinoma but sometimes included in classification systems carcinoma in situ do not penetrate the basement membrane cells resemble those of grade II or III t...

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder (staging)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder staging uses the TNM system which has replaced the previously widely used Jewett-Scott-Marshall tumor staging system. It is very similar to the staging of TCC of the renal pelvis and staging of TCC of the ureter. TNM staging T Ta: non-invasive papill...

Transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis (staging)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis staging uses the TNM system and is very similar to staging of TCC of the bladder and to staging of TCC of the ureter. TNM staging T Ta: noninvasive papillary tumor Tis: in situ (noninvasive flat) T1: through lamina propria into sub-epithelial ...

Transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter (staging)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter staging uses the TNM system and is very similar to staging of TCC of the bladder and to staging of TCC of the renal pelvis. TNM staging T Ta: noninvasive papillary tumor Tis: in situ (noninvasive flat) T1: through lamina propria into sub-epithelial...

Transitional cell carcinoma (renal pelvis)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis is uncommon compared to renal cell carcinoma and can be challenging to identify on routine imaging when small. This article concerns itself with TCCs of the renal pelvis specifically. For a general discussion of this tumor, please see transitiona...

Transitional cell carcinoma (staging)

Staging of transitional cell carcinomas of the urinary tract vary according to the location of the tumor, and are staged using the TNM staging system. transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder

Transitional cell carcinoma (ureter)

Transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter are uncommon compared to similar tumors elsewhere along the urinary tract but are nonetheless the most common primary tumor of the ureter. This article concerns itself with transitional cell carcinomas of the ureter specifically. For a general discussio...

Transitional cell carcinoma (urinary bladder)

Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the most common primary neoplasm of the urinary bladder, and bladder TCC is the most common tumor of the entire urinary system. This article concerns itself with transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder specifically. Related articles include: general dis...

Transitional cell carcinoma (urinary tract)

Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), also called urothelial cell carcinoma (UCC), is the most common primary malignancy of the urinary tract and may be found along its entire length, from the renal pelvis to the bladder. As imaging findings and treatment vary according to where along the urinary...

Transition zone (disambiguation)

Transition zone may refer to the: transition zone of a nerve zone of transition of a bone lesion transition zone (TZ) of the prostate

Transjugular renal biopsy

Transjugular renal biopsy can be performed to obtain an adequate tissue sample for histopathologic diagnosis on renal dysfunctions. It is usually performed in high-risk patients in whom percutaneous renal biopsy is not feasible or is contraindicated. This is also useful in morbidly obese patient...

Transplant renal arterial pseudostenosis

Transplant renal arterial pseudostenosis is uncommon. It is a lesion in the iliac artery proximal to the implantation of the transplant renal artery. Epidemiology Uncommon, although as the population of renal transplant recipients has become older and more diabetic, the incidence of this disea...

Transrectal ultrasound

Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) is a technique that is used most commonly to evaluate the prostate gland, including ultrasound-guided prostate biopsies depth of invasion of colon/rectal cancer (for staging purposes) It can also be used for guidance in placing a transrectal drain, or in rare pro...

Transureteroureterostomy

Transureteroureterostomy (TUU) is a procedure in which one ureter is divided and then connected (re-routed) into the other. It is performed when a distal ureter needs to be bypassed and can be performed instead of a psoas hitch or Boari flap. It may be preferable if the patient has had prior rad...

Transurethral resection of the prostate

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is a traditional therapy for lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and prostatism from benign prostatic hyperplasia. TURP results in characteristic imaging features. Indications acute urinary retention recurrent infection recurrent hematuria azot...

True hermaphroditism

True hermaphroditism is a form of disorder of gender development. Pathology Patients with true hermaphroditism have mosaicism of 46XX and 46XY. They therefore have both ovarian and testicular tissues. Subtypes There are three forms of true hermaphroditism: unilateral true hermaphroditism ...

Tuberous sclerosis

Tuberous sclerosis, also known as tuberous sclerosis complex or Bourneville disease, is a neurocutaneous disorder (phakomatosis) characterized by the development of multiple benign tumors of the embryonic ectoderm (e.g. skin, eyes, and nervous system). Epidemiology Tuberous sclerosis has an in...

Tuberous sclerosis (diagnostic criteria)

The tuberous sclerosis diagnostic criteria have been developed to aid the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis and have most recently been updated in 2012 by the International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group (at time of writing - 2019) 1. Criteria Genetic criteria The identification of...

Tubular ectasia of rete testis

Tubular ectasia of rete testis represents dilated testicular mediastinal tubules. Epidemiology This condition is more common in men over the age of 55 years. Pathology This is a benign condition thought to result from the partial or complete obliteration of the efferent ducts. These sperma...

Tubular ectasia of the epididymis

Tubular ectasia of the epididymis results in enlargement of the epididymis with multiple cystic interfaces. It typically occurs in those with a prior vasectomy but can be also seen with other causes of obstruction of the ductus deferens. Radiographic features Ultrasound This can give a charac...

Tubulocystic renal cell carcinoma

Tubulocystic renal cell carcinomas are a rare subtype of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) with predominantly cystic appearance. Terminology Tubulocystic RCC was first identified as a distinct histopathologic entity in 2005, and subsequently acknowledged as an independent disease category in the 2016...

Tumors of the male urethra

Tumors of the male urethra are uncommon. They can be categorized both on the grounds of histology and location. Histology squamous cell carcinoma of the urethra: 80% urothelial/transitional cell carcinoma of the urethra: 15% (predominantly posterior urethra) adenocarcinoma of the urethra: 5%...

Tumors of the seminal vesicles

Tumors arising primarily from the seminal vesicles are rare. Most frequently, when a mass is seen in the seminal vesicles, it represents a contiguous spread from tumors in adjacent organs, in particular, the prostate. Epithelial tumors adenocarcinoma of the seminal vesicle the most common pri...

Tunica albuginea cyst

Tunica albuginea (TA) cysts are the most common extratesticular benign scrotal mass lesion. They are a type of scrotal tunica cyst. Epidemiology Their mean age at presentation is 40 years (although may be seen in the 5th and 6th decades). Clinical presentation They are usually palpable. Pat...

Tunica albuginea (testis)

The tunica albuginea (TA) forms the fibrous covering of the testis and is itself covered by the serous layer, the tunica vaginalis. The covering is total, except for at the point of attachment of the epididymis, and a small defect posteriorly where the spermatic cord vessels enter and leave the ...

Tunica (disambiguation)

Tunica is a word used in anatomy to refer to a type of covering. tunica adventitia (also known as tunica externa) tunica albuginea tunica albuginea (clitoris) tunica albuginea (ovary) tunica albuginea (penis) tunica albuginea (testis) tunica intima tunica media tunica vaginalis tunica...

Tunica vaginalis cyst

Tunica vaginalis cyst is a type of benign paratesticular cystic lesion. It is a cyst that arises from the tunica vaginalis and, in conjunction with tunica albuginea cysts, they are collectively termed scrotal tunica cysts. Pathology Their exact cause is unknown, although history of trauma, hem...

Tunica vaginalis (testis)

The tunica vaginalis (TV) represents the investing serosal covering of the testis. It forms as the embryological testis descends and passes out through the superficial inguinal ring carrying its abdominal peritoneal covering with it. The tunica vaginalis is said to consist of two layers, the pa...

Tunica vaginalis testis mesothelioma

Tunica vaginalis testis mesothelioma refers to mesothelioma arising from the tunica vaginalis. Epidemiology Malignant mesothelioma originating from the tunica vaginalis is extremely rare. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with enlarging or recurrent hydrocele, or less frequen...

Twinkling artifact

Twinkling artifact is the result of intrinsic machine noise seen with color Doppler ultrasound 1. It occurs as a focus of alternating colors on Doppler signal behind a reflective object (such as calculi), which gives the appearance of turbulent blood flow 2. It appears with or without an associa...

TWIST score

The Testicular Workup for Ischemia and Suspected Torsion (TWIST) score is a clinical decision tool used for the workup and management of acute scrotal emergencies where torsion is suspected. It uses history and examination to estimate the likelihood of torsion. Currently, validation of the clini...

Umbilical-urachal sinus

An umbilical-urachal sinus belongs to the spectrum of congenital urachal anomalies and represents a non-communicating dilatation of the urachus at the umbilical end. Clinical presentation Presentation is commoner in children and rare in adult. Radiographic features An umbilical-urachal sinus...

Umbilicus

The umbilicus is the fibrous remnant of the foetal attachment of the umbilical cord after birth. All layers of the anterior abdominal wall fuse at the umbilical ring, a small round defect in the linea alba located just inferior to the midpoint between the xiphoid process of the sternum and the p...

Unilateral renal enlargement (differential)

Unilateral renal enlargement can arise from a number of causes which include: duplicated pelvicalyceal system crossed-fused renal ectopia renal arterial infarction renal vein thrombosis anatomic compression of the renal vein compensatory hypertrophy acute bacterial nephritis obstructive ...

Unilateral testicular lesions

The differential diagnosis for unilateral testicular lesions is wide-ranging. Neoplastic Common seminoma (40-50% of testicular malignancies) non-seminomatous germ cell tumors: testicular teratoma testicular epidermoid (teratoma with ectodermal elements only) testicular choriocarcinoma t...

Urachal cyst

Urachal cysts are one of the manifestations of the spectrum of congenital urachal remnant abnormalities. Clinical presentation Urachal cysts usually remain asymptomatic until complicated by infection or bleeding. Epidemiology An infected urachal cyst can occur at any age. Pathology Uracha...

Urachus

The urachus is the fibrous vestigial remnant of the fetal allantois. The lumen of the urachus usually obliterates after birth and it becomes the median umbilical ligament, a midline linear fibrous fold of parietal peritoneum, extending from the apex of the bladder to the umbilicus. It is locate...

Ureter

The ureter is a paired fibromuscular tube that conveys urine from the kidneys in the abdomen to the bladder in the pelvis. Gross anatomy The ureter is 25-30 cm long and has three parts: abdominal ureter: from the renal pelvis to the pelvic brim pelvic ureter: from the pelvic brim to the bla...

Ureteral duplication

Ureteral duplication is the most common congenital abnormality associated with the urinary tract, and occurs in ~1% of the population. Gross anatomy Duplication can occur unilaterally or bilaterally, and may be partial or complete: partially duplicated ureters fuse into a single ureter proxim...

Ureteral pseudodiverticulosis

Ureteral pseudodiverticulosis are acquired false diverticula resulting from herniation of epithelium through the muscularis layer of the ureter and characterized by the presence of multiple outpouchings smaller than 5 mm. It is sometimes bilateral and is often located in the upper two-thirds of ...

Ureteral tumors

A number of tumors may affect the ureter, by far the most common histology being transitional cell carcinoma. transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter: 95% 1 squamous cell carcinoma of the ureter: 5% adenocarcinoma of the ureter: <1%

Ureteric bud

The ureteric bud (also known as the metanephrogenic diverticulum) is a protrusion of the mesonephric duct that appears during the embryological development of urogenital organs. It will eventually form the urinary collecting system (i.e. collecting tubes, calyces, renal pelvis, ureter) of the ki...

Ureteric calculi

Ureteric calculi or stones are those lying within the ureter, at any point from the ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) to the ureterovesical junction (UVJ). They are the classic cause of renal colic-type abdominal pain. They are a subtype of the broader pathology of urolithiasis. Epidemiology The li...

Ureteric injury

Ureteric injury is a relatively uncommon, but severe event, which may result in serious complications as a diagnosis is often delayed. Clinical presentation Ureteric injuries unreliably demonstrate macro- or micro-scopic hematuria as it may be absent in up to 25% of patients 5, 6. Classic cli...

Ureteric jet

Ureteric jets (or ureteral jets) are the visualization of the normal physiological periodic efflux of urine from the distal end of each ureter into the bladder. Pathology When the urine passing down the ureter reaches the vesicoureteric junction (VUJ), it is forced out into the bladder via a ...

Ureteric rupture

Ureteric rupture is rare but has been described. It may be spontaneous or secondary to another pathology or intervention. Clinical presentation The most common symptoms are sudden, severe, persistent lower abdominal pain with severe peritoneal irritation. Abdominal compartment syndrome, respir...

Ureteric stent

Ureteric stents, also known as double J stents or retrograde ureteric stents, is a urological catheter that has two "J-shaped" (curled) ends, where one is anchored in the renal pelvis and the other inside the bladder. Stents are used for the free passage of urine from the kidney to the bladder,...

Ureteritis

Ureteritis refers to inflammation of the ureter, it is rare and is often associated with cystitis or pyelonephritis 1. Clinical presentation Patients may present with symptoms of cystitis or pyelonephritis with suprapubic/flank pain, dysuria, hematuria and/or fever. White cell count may also ...

Ureteritis cystica

Ureteritis cystica or pyeloureteritis cystica is a benign condition of the ureters representing multiple small submucosal cysts. Epidemiology Typically, this condition is seen in diabetics with recurrent urinary tract infections. As such, it is most frequently seen in older patients and is mo...

Ureterocele

Ureteroceles represent abnormal congenital dilatation of the distal-most portion of the ureter. The dilated portion of the ureter may herniate into the bladder secondary to the abnormal structure of vesicoureteric junction (VUJ). Epidemiology A ureterocele occurs in about 1 in 4000 children an...

Ureterovaginal fistula

Ureterovaginal fistulae refer to abnormal communications between the lumina of the ureter(s) and the vagina. Clinical presentation Patients usually present with urinary incontinence through the vagina which may be accompanied by fever and chills 1. Symptoms usually begin within 2-4 weeks foll...

Urethra

The urethra is the terminal segment of the genitourinary system. Because of vastly different anatomy between the sexes, male and female urethras are discussed separately: female urethra male urethra

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