Articles

Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.

Create new article

Filtered (1)Done (clear)

+Systems

+Article Sections

+Sort By

Support Radiopaedia and see fewer ads

1,075 results found

Carotid artery stenosis

Carotid artery stenosis also referred as extracranial carotid artery stenosis, is usually caused by an atherosclerotic process and is one of the major causes of stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) 1. This article refers to stenosis involving carotid bulb and the proximal segment of inte...

Carotid bifurcation

The carotid bifurcation is the point at which the common carotid artery terminates. As it does so, it forms the internal and external carotid arteries which go on to supply the head and neck. It is closely related anatomically to the carotid body, a small group of chemoreceptors and supporting ...

Carotid body tumor

Carotid body tumor, also known as a chemodectoma or carotid body paraganglioma, is a highly vascular glomus tumor that arises from the paraganglion cells of the carotid body. It is located at the carotid bifurcation with characteristic splaying of the ICA and ECA. Epidemiology Typically, caro...

Carotid endarterectomy

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is a surgical procedure that involves removing athersclerotic plaque causing internal carotid artery stenosis in order to to prevent ischemic stroke. It can be used in both in the setting of symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid stenosis. More recently, percutaneous ...

Carotid pacemaker

Carotid pacemaker, also known as implantable carotid sinus stimulators, is a device that delivers activation energy through the carotid leads and the leads conduct activation energy to the carotid baroreceptors. This is sometimes offered for drug-resistant hypertension. The baroreceptors send si...

Carotid web

Carotid webs, also known as carotid intimal variant fibromuscular dysplasia, are rare vascular pathologies of the internal carotid artery that are an important cause of cryptogenic and recurrent ischemic stroke. Terminology Carotid webs have had many different names in the literature, includin...

Carotidynia

Carotidynia, also known as Fay syndrome, is a rare syndrome characterized by neck pain in the region of the carotid bifurcation. It was classified by the International Headache Society (IHS) in 1988 as an idiopathic neck pain syndrome associated with tenderness over the carotid bifurcation with...

Catheter-directed thrombolysis

Catheter-directed thrombolysis (CDT) is an endovascular approach to the treatment of acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. It involves the administration of a lytic agent directly into a thrombus. Indications precise diagnosis of iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis first episode of acute ili...

Causes of ascending aorta calcification

There are relatively few causes of calcification of the ascending aorta 1-3: atherosclerosis (this usually spares the ascending aorta) aortitis syphilis Takayasu arteritis idiopathic

Causes of a small aorta

Causes of a small aorta include: Williams syndrome Takayasu arteritis giant cell arteritis neurofibromatosis midaortic syndrome small aorta syndrome idiopathic

Caval variants

Many caval variants exist, due to the complex embryology of the venous system. These are important for a number of reasons: not to confuse them with pathology suggest the presence of frequently associated other abnormalities planning of vascular intervention or surgery Types superior vena ...

Cavernous sinus

The cavernous sinuses are paired dural venous sinuses. Gross anatomy The cavernous sinus is located on either side of the pituitary fossa and body of the sphenoid bone between the endosteal and meningeal layers of the dura. It spans from the apex of the orbit to the apex of the petrous tempor...

Cavernous sinus hemangioma

Cavernous sinus hemangioma is an uncommon cause of a cavernous sinus mass. Preoperative diagnosis is important to avoid unexpected surgical blood loss. Epidemiology Cavernous hemangiomas of the cavernous sinus account for less than 1% of all parasellar masses 1. They have a predilection for m...

Cavernous sinus thrombosis

Cavernous sinus thrombosis (CST) is a rare condition, most commonly infectious in nature, and the diagnosis on imaging is not always straightforward. It has high mortality and morbidity rates. Epidemiology CST is rare with ~4.5 cases per 1,000,000 per year 5. It is the least common dural venou...

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein (CTPV) is a sequela of portal vein thrombosis and is the replacement of the normal single channel portal vein with numerous tortuous venous channels. For a discussion of demographics and presentation, please refer to the article on portal vein thrombo...

Central artery of the retina

The central artery of the retina or central retinal artery (CRA) arises from the ophthalmic artery. Gross anatomy The central artery of the retina courses anteriorly and inferior to the optic nerve, It then pierces the dura and the arachnoid of the optic nerve. It then runs in the center of t...

Central nervous system vasculitides

Central nervous system (CNS) vasculitides represent a heterogeneous group of inflammatory diseases affecting the walls of blood vessels in the brain, spinal cord, and the meninges. Please refer to the article on vasculitis for a general discussion of that entity. The aim of this article will ...

Central venous catheter

Central venous catheters (CVC) or lines (CVL) refer to a wide range of central venous access devices but can broadly be divided into four categories. They may be inserted by medical, surgical, anesthetic/ITU, or radiology specialists. Classification peripherally inserted central catheters (PIC...

Cephalic vein

The cephalic vein, along with the basilic vein, is one of the primary superficial veins that drain the upper limb 1. It courses through both the forearm and arm and terminates by draining into the axillary vein. Summary origin: radial aspect of the superficial venous network of the dorsum of...

Cerebral arteriovenous malformation

Cerebral arteriovenous malformations (CAVMs), also known as classic brain AVMs, are a common form of cerebral vascular malformation and are composed of a nidus of vessels through which arteriovenous shunting occurs. Terminology This article corresponds to the classic form of arteriovenous malf...

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is an autosomal dominant microvasculopathy characterized by recurrent lacunar and subcortical white matter ischemic strokes and vascular dementia in young and middle age patients without known va...

Cerebral cavernous venous malformation

Cerebral cavernous venous malformations, commonly known as cavernous hemangioma or cavernoma, are common cerebral vascular malformations, usually with characteristic appearances on MRI. Cavernous malformations are found throughout the body. This article focuses on cerebral cavernous venous mal...

Cerebral proliferative angiopathy

Cerebral proliferative angiopathy (CPA), previously known as diffuse nidus type AVM, is a cerebral vascular malformation separated from classic brain AVM and characterized by the presence of normal brain parenchyma interspersed throughout the tangle of vessels that corresponds to the nidus 1,2. ...

Cerebral vascular malformations

Vascular malformations of the central nervous system can be divided, as they can elsewhere, into high and low flow malformations. High flow arteriovenous malformation (AVM) cerebral AVM (pial/parenchymal AVM) cerebral proliferative angiopathy dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF) pial arteri...

Cerebral vascular territories

An understanding of cerebral vascular territories is important in understanding stroke and complications from surgery and endovascular procedures. Although one could be excused for thinking that within the brain, such a carefully organised organ, blood supply would be constant, the truth is th...

Cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage

Cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage is a major complication of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). It is overtaking rebleed as the major cause of mortality and morbidity in the subgroup of patients with SAH who reach the hospital and receive medical care. Epidemiology It is seen in...

Cerebral veins

The cerebral veins drain the brain parenchyma and are located in the subarachnoid space. They pierce the meninges and drain further into the cranial venous sinuses. The cerebral veins lack muscular tissue and valves. The cerebral venous system can be divided into: superficial (cortical) cerebr...

Cerebral venous infarction

Cerebral venous infarction is an uncommon form of stroke, and is most commonly secondary to cerebral venous thrombosis and frequently manifests with hemorrhage. It should be considered in infarcts (with or without hemorrhage) which do not correspond to a typical arterial territory 1. Epidemiolo...

Cerebral venous system

The cerebral venous system, somewhat unlike the majority of the rest of the body, does not even remotely follow the cerebral arterial system. The cortical veins lie superficially, unlike cortical arteries, and are adherent to the deep surface of the arachnoid mater so that they keep the sulci o...

Cerebral venous thrombosis

Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) refers to occlusion of venous channels in the cranial cavity, including dural venous thrombosis, cortical vein thrombosis and deep cerebral vein thrombosis. They often co-exist and the clinical presentation among them is very similar and nonspecific. Furthermore,...

Cerebrofacial arteriovenous metameric syndrome

Cerebrofacial arteriovenous metameric syndrome (CAMS) encompasses maxillofacial/intracranial vascular malformation complexes including Wyburn-Mason Syndrome and Sturge-Weber syndrome 1-4. Three types are described depending on location 2,6: CAMS I: medial prosencephalic group with involvement o...

Cervical aortic arch

Cervical aortic arches are a rare aortic arch anomaly characterized by an elongated, high-lying aortic arch extending at or above the level of the medial ends of the clavicles. Clinical presentation Patients with cervical aortic arch are usually asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients may present w...

Charles T Dotter

Charles T Dotter (1920-1985) is often considered the father of interventional radiology who in 1964 performed the very first peripheral angioplasty, and made many other major contributions in this field. Early life Charles Theodore Dotter was born in Boston on 14th June 1920. He graduated with...

Chest x-ray: PICC position (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Chest x-ray PICC (peripherally inserted central catheter) position should be assessed following initial placement and on subsequent radiographs. Reference article This is a summary article; we do have a more in-depth refe...

Chronic hereditary lymphedema

Chronic hereditary lymphedema or Milroy disease is a condition characterized by lower-limb lymphoedema. Patients typically present with pedal edema at or before birth or soon after. Occasionally, it develops later in life. Pathology Genetics Mutations in the FLT4 gene is thought to be present...

Chronic mesenteric ischemia

Chronic mesenteric ischemia is an uncommon type of intestinal ischemia usually affecting elderly patients as a result of significant stenosis of two or more mesenteric arteries. Epidemiology Normally seen in patients older than 60 years of age and is three times more common in women. Clinical...

Chronic periaortitis

Chronic periaortitis is an inflammatory condition which typically involves the infrarenal portion of the abdominal aorta. It is a rare disease usually occurring in middle-aged men. It has various clinical presentations: idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis (IRF) perianeurysmal retroperitoneal ...

Chronic pulmonary embolism

Chronic pulmonary emboli are mainly a consequence of incomplete resolution of pulmonary thromboembolism. Radiographic features CTPA vascular CT signs include direct pulmonary artery signs complete obstruction partial obstruction eccentric thrombus calcified thrombus - calcific pulmonary ...

Chronic venous insufficiency

Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) occurs due to inadequate functioning of venous wall and/or valves in lower limb veins resulting in excessive pooling of blood. Pathology The condition results from venous hypertension which in turn is usually caused by reflux in the superficial venous compart...

Circle of Willis

The Circle of Willis is an arterial polygon formed as the internal carotid and vertebral systems anastomose around the optic chiasm and infundibulum of the pituitary stalk in the suprasellar cistern. This communicating pathway allows equalization of blood-flow between the two sides of the brain,...

Circumaortic left renal vein

Circumaortic left renal vein, also known as circumaortic renal collar is an anomaly of left renal vein when a supernumerary or accessory left renal vein passes posterior to the aorta, apart from the normal renal vein passing anterior to the aorta. This anomaly is potentially hazardous, if unreco...

Circumflex aorta

Circumflex aorta is a rare aortic arch anomaly caused by retroesophageal crossing of the aorta to the contralateral side. A vascular ring is formed when a ductus or ligamentum arteriosum contralateral to the aortic arch connects the descending aorta to the pulmonary artery. Clinical presentatio...

Circumflex artery

The circumflex artery (Cx) is a major coronary artery that divides off the left main coronary artery (the other branch being the left anterior descending (LAD) artery). Terminology The circumflex artery is referred to by multiple terms: circumflex artery (Cx) ramus circumflex artery (RCx) l...

Circumflex fibular artery

The circumflex fibular artery is a minor artery of the leg. Gross anatomy Origin and course Most often arises from the posterior tibial artery, passes laterally round the neck of the fibula through the soleus to anastomose with the lateral inferior genicular, medial genicular and anterior tib...

Cirsoid aneurysm

Cirsoid aneurysms are rare arteriovenous malformations of the scalp and extremities. Clinical presentation Patients often present with a slow-growing pulsatile mass and may also experience bleeding, tinnitus and/or a headache 3. Pathology Cirsoid aneurysms develop due to an abnormal arteri...

Cisterna chyli

The cisterna chyli (CC), also known as the receptaculum chyli, is a normal anatomical structure seen as a saccular area of dilatation in the lymphatic channels that is located in the retrocrural space, usually to the immediate right of the abdominal aorta 4. Gross anatomy Location The cistern...

Classification of endoleaks

Endoleaks occur when an aneurysmal sac continues to be pressurised despite endoluminal stent placement. See the full article on endoleaks here. Classification There are five types: type I: leak at graft ends (inadequate seal) - most common after repair of thoracic aortic aneurysms 4 Ia: prox...

CNS capillary telangiectasia

CNS capillary telangiectasiae(s) are small, asymptomatic low flow vascular lesions of the brain. Epidemiology As these lesions are asymptomatic, diagnosis usually matches the age of first imaging with MRI, and as such are most frequently found in middle-aged and elderly adults. Their inciden...

Coarctation of the aorta

Coarctation of the aorta (CoA) refers to a narrowing of the aortic lumen. Epidemiology Coarctations account for between 5-8% of all congenital heart defects. They are more frequent in males, M:F ratio of ~2-3:1. Clinical presentation Varies accordingly to the degree of stenosis and the assoc...

Cobweb sign of arterial dissection

The cobweb sign is seen in cases of arterial dissection (usually aortic dissection) on CT angiogram (CTA) examinations and represents strands or ribbons of media crossing the false lumen, and appearing as thin filiform filling defects. Although it is a specific sign for the false lumen, it is i...

Celiac artery

Celiac artery, also known as the celiac axis or celiac trunk, is a major visceral artery in the abdominal cavity supplying the foregut. It arises from the abdominal aorta and commonly gives rise to three branches: left gastric artery, splenic artery, and common hepatic artery. Gross anatomy O...

Celiac artery aneurysm

Celiac artery aneurysms are a form of visceral artery aneurysm and account for around 4% of such cases (fourth most common visceral arterial aneurysm). Pathology Associations An association with non-visceral arterial aneurysms is considered frequent 2. Clinical presentation While some pati...

Celiac artery compression syndrome

Celiac artery compression syndrome is also known as celiac axis syndrome, median arcuate ligament syndrome and Dunbar syndrome. It is characterized by upper abdominal angina secondary to compression of the celiac trunk by the diaphragmatic crurae. Pathology The median arcuate ligament is the f...

Celiac artery dissection

Celiac artery dissection is a type of arterial dissection. It is rarely seen as a primary phenomenon and is most often encountered due to propagation of an aortic dissection. Epidemiology Celiac artery dissection is usually iatrogenic but may also be secondary to: atherosclerosis trauma pre...

Coeliacomesenteric trunk

The coeliacomesenteric trunk represents an uncommon vascular anatomical variant where both the celiac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery have a common origin from the abdominal aorta as a single trunk. Its frequency has been reported to occur in about 1.5% of the population 1,2. A celiac-...

Cogan syndrome

Cogan syndrome is a rare vasculitis of young adults that is primarily characterized by 1,4,6: inflammatory eye disease (classically interstitial keratitis) 6 audiovestibular dysfunction (similar to Meniere disease) 6 Epidemiology Cogan syndrome is rare and can occur in people of any age and ...

Coil herniation

A coil herniation refers to the part of a detachable coil prolapsing out of the aneurysm and into the parent artery. It is an uncommon complication and is typically seen at the end of the embolization procedure. Contributing factors include 1: wide aneurysm neck instability of the coil in the ...

COL4A1-related disorders

COL4A1-related disorders are a group of autosomal dominant disorders caused by a mutation in the COL4A1 gene. Epidemiology The exact prevalence is unknown, but the group of disorders is considered to be under-recognised, especially asymptomatic variants 1. Clinical presentation The clinical ...

Collateral systems between the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery

There are several collateral systems between the primary vascular supply of the foregut and midgut. The collateral between the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery include: gastroduodenal artery (GDA) branch of the common hepatic artery and anastomoses with branches of the inferior pa...

Comet tail sign (phleboliths)

Comet tail sign (in urological imaging) is helpful in distinguishing a ureteric calculus from a phlebolith and strongly favours the latter. The sign refers to a tail of soft tissue extending from a calcification, representing the collapsed/scarred/thrombosed parent vein. When well seen it is s...

Common carotid artery

The common carotid artery is a paired structure that supplies blood to the head and neck. Summary origin: left: branch of the aortic arch right: branch of the brachiocephalic trunk course: posterior to sternoclavicular joint, lateral to thyroid and trachea supply: head and neck main bran...

Common facial vein

The common facial vein is formed by the joining of the facial vein and anterior branch of the retromandibular vein. It is part of the venous drainage system of the face. Summary origin and termination: the facial vein (along with the facial artery) pierces the deep investing fascia of the neck...

Common femoral artery

The common femoral artery is the continuation of the external iliac artery at the level of the inguinal ligament. As well as supplying oxygenated blood to the leg, it gives off smaller branches to the anterior abdominal wall. The artery lies medial to the midpoint of the inguinal ligament, halfw...

Common femoral vein

The common femoral vein (CFV) forms from the confluence of the femoral vein and the deep femoral vein, and continues as the external iliac vein at the inguinal ligament. It accompanies the common femoral artery. Terminology "Common femoral vein" is not listed in Terminologia Anatomica, however...

Common hepatic artery

The common hepatic artery (CHA) is a terminal branch of the celiac artery. Gross anatomy Origin and course The CHA is a terminal branch of the celiac artery, it passes over the top of pancreas, and downwards to the right in the lesser sac towards the first part of duodenum. It gives off the r...

Common iliac artery

The common iliac arteries (CIA) are the large paired terminal branches of the abdominal aorta. Gross anatomy Origin The abdominal aorta bifurcates anterolateral (to the left side) of the L4 vertebra, into the right and left common iliac arteries. Course The common iliac arteries enter the ...

Common iliac vein

The common iliac vein, corresponding with the common iliac artery, drains venous blood from the pelvis, lower limbs and their associated structures. Summary location: pelvis, anterior to the sacroiliac joint origin and termination: union of internal and external iliac veins; into the inferior...

Common interosseous artery

The common interosseous artery is a branch of the proximal part of the ulnar artery at the level of the pronator teres in the distal part of the cubital fossa. It is a short vessel that dives laterally and deeply before bifurcating into anterior and posterior interosseous arteries.

Concentric ring sign

The concentric ring sign is a pathognomonic sign for a subacute hematoma on MRI. A subacute hematoma may show 3 characteristic layers of signal intensity: a thin peripheral rim of low signal intensity on all pulse sequences corresponding to hemosiderin. an inner peripheral high-signal intensi...

Confluence of sinuses

The confluence of sinuses, also known as the torcula or torcular herophili is the site of the confluence of: superior sagittal sinus straight sinus occipital sinus transverse sinuses The anatomy is highly variable and three types can be distinguished: type 1: superior sagittal sinus drains...

Congenital absence of the internal carotid artery

Congenital absence of the internal carotid artery (ICA) is a rare anomaly that occurs in less than 0.01% of the population. It encompasses agenesis, aplasia, and hypoplasia 1. The most common type of collateral flow is through the circle of Willis, through the anterior communicating artery (ACO...

Congenital coronary artery anomalies

Congenital coronary artery anomalies (CCAAs) are not common, found only in ~1% (range 0.1-2%) of patients 1,3.The most important finding to look for is the "malignant" course of anomalous coronary artery, i.e. does the artery run between big pulsating objects - right ventricular outflow tract / ...

Congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunt classification

This congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunt classification was proposed by Morgan and Superina in 1994 1: type 1: complete diversion of portal blood into the Inferior vena cava with congenital absence of the portal vein 1a: superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein do not join to form a c...

Congenital hemangioma

Congenital hemangiomas are benign vascular tumors of childhood that are present at birth. They are mostly indistinguishable from infantile hemangioma on imaging but have distinct histological and clinical features. While the majority are cutaneous or subcutaneous in nature, the can occur extra-...

Congenital intrahepatic portosystemic shunt classification

This congenital intrahepatic portosystemic shunt classification was proposed by Park et al. in 1990 1: type 1: single large vessel of constant diameter connecting the right portal vein to the Inferior vena cava type 2: localised, peripheral shunt with one or more communications in a single hep...

Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries

Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries, also known as levo- or L-loop transposition (L-TGA), is a rare cardiovascular anomaly with inversion of the ventricles and great arteries. Epidemiology This anomaly comprises less than 1% of all congenital heart diseases 1,2,7. Clin...

Congenital portosystemic shunt

Congenital portosystemic shunts are rare, extrahepatic or intrahepatic, anatomical abnormalities shunting blood from the portal venous system to the systemic venous system and, thus, avoiding passage through the hepatic acinus. Terminology The term “portosystemic shunt” can be used to refer t...

Congenital vascular anomalies

Congenital vascular anomalies may be: congenital cardiac abnormalities vascular malformations

Constrictive pericarditis

Constrictive pericarditis (or perhaps better termed pericardial constriction) is a type of pericarditis which leads to diastolic dysfunction and potentially symptoms of right heart failure. Epidemiology No single demographic is affected as there are numerous causes of constrictive pericarditi...

Contrast enhanced MR angiography

Contrast enhanced MR angiography (MRA) is a technique involving 3D spoiled gradient-echo (GE) sequences, with administration of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCA). It can be used to assess vascular structures of almost any part of the body. Its key features are: T1 weighted spoiled gradien...

Contrast-induced nephropathy

Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) describes an association between intravenous or intra-arterial contrast administration and renal impairment, but increasingly the evidence shows that contrast is not the cause of the renal impairment and that confounding factors such as sepsis are likely to be ...

Contrast media extravasation

Contrast media extravasation (CMEV) refers to the leakage of contrast media from the normal intravascular compartment into surrounding soft tissues; It is a well-known complication of contrast-enhanced CT scanning. It can also occur in MRI studies, but the complications are rare given the low vo...

Conus artery

The conus artery is a small early branch off the right coronary artery (RCA) circulation. Gross anatomy Supply The artery has a variable distribution, but usually supplies a region of the anterior interventricular septum and the conus of the main pulmonary artery (hence its name). Variant an...

Coral reef aorta

Coral reef aorta (CRA) is a rare disease, described as hard calcifications involving the arterial wall which protrude into the lumen. It predominantly involves the posterior thoracic and abdominal aorta. CRA luminal lesions can cause significant aortic stenosis. Epidemiology Patients usually p...

Corona mortis

Corona mortis, Latin for "crown of death", is a common variant vascular anastomosis between the external iliac artery or deep inferior epigastric artery with the obturator artery. It is reported to be present in a third of patients on routine multi-detector CT examination 1,4. Knowledge of thi...

Coronary arteries

The coronary arteries arise from the coronary sinuses immediately distal (superior) to the aortic valve and supply the myocardium with oxygenated blood. They branch and encircle the heart to cover its surface with a lacy network resembling perhaps a slightly crooked crown. Gross anatomy The ty...

Coronary artery aneurysm

Coronary artery aneurysms are an uncommon, predominantly incidental finding. Epidemiology Coronary artery aneurysms are most common in men 3, likely reflecting the increased rates of atherosclerosis in men compared to women. Prevalence varies in the literature between 0.1-5% 4. Clinical prese...

Coronary artery bypass graft

A coronary artery bypass graft (CABG or CAG) is placed during a surgical procedure to increase blood flow to the myocardium due to coronary stenoses, usually caused by coronary artery disease. Arteries or veins can be grafted during this procedure. Long term outcome of coronary artery bypass gr...

Coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of mortality globally. Clinical presentation CAD is asymptomatic in most of the population. When severe enough it can cause angina or an acute coronary syndrome including myocardial infarction. CAD may also present with heart failure or sudde...

Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System - SCCT/ACR/NASCI (2016)

Coronary Artery Disease - Reporting and Data System (CAD-RADSTM) classification is proposed by the Society for Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT), the American College of Radiology (ACR), and the North American Society for Cardiovascular Imaging (NASCI), last updated in 2016. This recomm...

Coronary artery dissection

Coronary artery dissection (also known as spontaneous coronary artery dissection or SCAD) is a rare cause of acute coronary syndrome especially in young patients who are otherwise healthy. Epidemiology Coronary artery dissection occurs mainly in young, otherwise health patients especially in f...

Coronary microvascular obstruction

Microvascular obstruction (MVO), also known as no reflow phenomenon, is an established complication encountered in coronary angioplasty for prolonged acute myocardial infarction. Pathology The phenomenon results from obstruction of the myocardial microcirculation, which is composed of vessel...

Coronary sinus

The coronary sinus is the major coronary vein. It returns the majority of the left ventricular blood flow to the right atrium. Gross anatomy The coronary sinus courses along the posterior wall of the left atrium into the left atrioventricular groove. It normally drains into the right atrium. T...

Updating… Please wait.

Unable to process the form. Check for errors and try again.

Thank you for updating your details.